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The main reason why the struggle for independencefailed was because it became a struggle less for theindependence of the Ukrainians as a whole than for theprivileges of the military element, the Cossacks, whowere themselves not united, and in addition never madecommon cause with the rebellious spirit among the DonCossacks. Hence it was possible for Muscovy to play offthe conflicting interests and gradually establish effectivehold on the Left-bank Ukraine, though the Cossacksunder their hetman (ataman, commander) kept their ownfinancial and military autonomy and their own traditionalforms of self-government, and the hetmans only toooften conducted foreign relations independently ofMoscow.The Cossacks were divided, somewhat as on the Don,between the richer, officer governing class, the rank-andfile,and the Zaporozhian Cossacks well to the south'in the wild grounds.' Most of the Ukrainians werepeasants, formerly serfs of Polish masters, now free ofthem, closely linked with the Cossack rank-and-file, butwith little save religion in common with the Cossackaristocracy, which wanted their labour and taxes. Thetownsfolk disliked Cossack rule, had their own rights,and were encouraged by Moscow to gravitate to her.The upper clergy, heavily endowed with land, for a timestood out strongly for ecclesiastical independence ofMuscovy, but became at one and the same time increasinglysubject to her and increasingly powerful as acultural influence on her As a result, Little Russiadeveloped with very wide Cossack autonomy, but withMuscovite influence extending and garrisons and officialsin certain towns, and with a growing concentration ofland in the hands of the privileged Cossack upper classat the expense of the peasants, who were being reducedto serfdom.These main lines were twisted by the rebellion ofMazepa at the crisis of the Great Northern War whichculminated in Peter the Great's complete defeat ofCharles XII of Sweden at Poltava in Little Russia (1709).Mazepa, the very un-Byronic hetman since 1687, was agreat builder and patron of the church and education,228