Untitled - OUDL Home

More documents

Recommendations

Info

This table, for all its uncertainties and deficiencies,brings out two broad facts:(i) Prior to about the end of the eighteenth centuryRussia did not have far the largest population of anyEuropean state. Behind the Great Northern War thedarkness thickens. Such evidence as there is indicatesthat the population of Muscovy after the Time ofTroubles (1604-13) increased steadily, whereas between1570 and 1620 it had very likely dropped. But until thelater seventeenth century she was almost certainly weakerin man-power than Poland-Lithuania. Only then didthe defection of much of the Ukraine and the probablenatural increase in Muscovy proper begin to turn thescale in her favour.(ii) Since the French Revolution conquest, acquisition,and natural increase have resulted in a phenomenal risein the population of the Russian empire; on a scalesurpassed (apart perhaps from India and China) only bythe United States, where very large immigration has tobe added to the above three factors. In mere numbersRussia already by 1871 was more than twice as big asany single European state. On the other hand, thanksto the attainment of German unity there was between1800 and 1914 an even larger relative increase in thesubjects of the Hohenzollerns than in those of theRomanovs.Absolute numbers can mean little. Russian manpowerwas too often terribly offset by inability to utilizeit, by lack of organization and modern training, equipmentand communications, by very grave social andeconomic disharmonies. The new world born out ofthe industrial revolution and modern science told againstenlarged Russia between 1725 and 1871 and the U.S.A. between 1800and 1871, and Prussia from 1871 is Germany. The 1939 figure forRussia is that of the Soviet census, covering a smaller area than theRussian empire. France is the 1789 France except in 1871 and 1914,when it excludes Alsace-Lorraine. Austria in 1871 and 1914 meansAustria-Hungary, in 1700 and 1800 the Austrian dominions excludingterritory in Germany, the Low Countries, and Italy. Prussia from 1871is Germany; the figure" for 1939 includes Austria, but not any of Czechoslovakia.The area of 1939 Poland was much smaller than that of preparationPoland. Eire is excluded in the British 1939 figure. TheJapanese figures are for Japan proper, excluding her empire.391
Russia, as the Crimean War gave ample proof. Thenext two generations saw rapid and profound changes,not merely in the economic and military spheres. Yetstill by 1914, in comparison with the all-round developmentof the West, the Russian numerical superioritywas heavily counterbalanced by her general qualitativeinferiority.The full recognition of Russia as a great power datesfrom the Seven Years' War. For thirty years after thedeath of Peter the Great (1725) disputed successions andrival camarillas gave ample opportunity for foreigndiplomacy to mitigate the effectiveness of Russian actionabroad. None the less Russia was the deciding powerin the War of the Polish Succession (1733-35), when shedefeated the French candidate for the throne and installedAugustus III of Saxony in Warsaw (cf. p. 208). In 1735a Russian corps appeared for the first time on the Rhine;in 1747-48 for the second time: they did no fighting,but they were a portent.Russia had not intervened earlier in the Wars of theAustrian Succession (1740-48), despite her guarantee ofthe Pragmatic Sanction. French diplomacy was responsible.France had added to her long-establishedpolicy of using Turkey, Poland, and Sweden against theHabsburgs the policy of using them also against Russia,since 1726 in regular alliance with Austria. She scoredone great success for herself and Turkey by the treatyof Belgrade (1739; see PP. 273-274). She aimed atanother by deflecting Russia from support of MariaTheresa through a palace revolution and embroilmentwith Sweden. France was successful to the extent thatElizabeth replaced the baby Ivan VI and his mother theregent, a strong Austrophil (1741), and that Sweden dulyplunged into a war of revenge (cf. p. 269). But Swedenfared disastrously, and Elizabeth, after some indecision,came down definitively on the side of her foreign minister,Bestuzhev-Ryumin (1693-1768; chancellor, 1744-58),who held unwaveringly to alliance with Austria, and ifpossible England, against the dangerously growingstrength of Frederick the Great (reigned 1740-86), atthat time the ally of France.392
Page 2:
UNIVERSALLIBRARYOU_214617UNIVERSALL
Page 8 and 9:
SURVEYOFRUSSIAN HISTORYbyB. H. SUMN
Page 10 and 11:
CHAPTERI. THE FRONTIERCONTENTS1. TY
Page 12:
MAPS1. THE U.S.S.R. (WESTERN PORTIO
Page 15 and 16:
Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and
Page 18:
MAP IU.S.S.R. (WESTERN PORTION)West
Page 21 and 22:
half-Russian), the Transcaucasian r
Page 23 and 24:
honey, and wax provided essentials
Page 25 and 26:
called podzol soils, grey sands and
Page 27 and 28:
(I)ST JOHN THE BAPTIST, YAROSLAVL,
Page 30 and 31:
movement of game and fur-bearing an
Page 32 and 33:
By the sixteenth century the scatte
Page 34 and 35:
other natural conditions made agric
Page 36 and 37:
population were relatively free pea
Page 38 and 39:
similar, and for centuries they had
Page 40:
merchant-adventurers and sea-captai
Page 43 and 44:
Byzantium or eastward into the step
Page 45 and 46:
and external struggles, especially
Page 47 and 48:
and opened the vista of the Volga a
Page 49 and 50:
social conditions in Poland fomente
Page 51 and 52:
followed slowly by the plough, into
Page 53 and 54:
frontier region was less all-pervad
Page 55 and 56:
For long a certain degree of mobili
Page 57 and 58:
gone down river far away south into
Page 59 and 60:
elected but appointed by the war mi
Page 61 and 62:
Cossacks, 'men of service' settled
Page 63 and 64:
sites. Some settled in the old Sibe
Page 65 and 66:
(I)PETER THE GREAT, 1672-1725From t
Page 67 and 68:
contrary it is necessary that there
Page 69 and 70:
(according to the old Russian calen
Page 71 and 72:
even a member of it after 1923. He
Page 73 and 74:
headed first by the moderate libera
Page 75 and 76:
words, "the regime of the dictators
Page 77 and 78:
"the Supreme, Autocratic power belo
Page 79 and 80:
was spoken of as a dress rehearsal.
Page 81 and 82:
The bureaucracy meant the governmen
Page 83 and 84:
the army in decomposition, there wa
Page 85 and 86:
odies, the provincial and municipal
Page 87 and 88:
functions and together with the pol
Page 89 and 90:
Muscovy as the patrimony of the tsa
Page 91 and 92:
his eldest son or, failing sons, to
Page 93 and 94:
and then killed, as being the rally
Page 95 and 96:
officers, but they were educated th
Page 97 and 98:
The Byzantine inheritance is more d
Page 99 and 100:
the necessity for unfettered autocr
Page 101 and 102:
manorial administration of the prin
Page 103 and 104:
the first concern of tsarism and in
Page 105 and 106:
Ivan was a man who did not take ris
Page 107 and 108:
extinguished, largely because after
Page 109 and 110:
een broken down during the two prev
Page 111 and 112:
Similarly, the council of magnates
Page 113 and 114:
portion of his own handiwork in fra
Page 115 and 116:
On the other hand, they could not u
Page 117 and 118:
eigned 1801-25) was part of his gen
Page 119 and 120:
particularly their generals-adjutan
Page 121 and 122:
pleading of which might excite publ
Page 123 and 124:
1793, 1795; Finland, 1721, 1743, 18
Page 125 and 126:
producer and trader in his realm. T
Page 127 and 128:
instituted (1804) a regularly organ
Page 129 and 130:
of agriculture, took on a new form
Page 131 and 132:
inevitably a full-scale revolution
Page 133 and 134:
at a tempo unknown in the modern hi
Page 135 and 136:
election is usually in effect contr
Page 137 and 138:
'and sown grasses, even though cere
Page 139 and 140:
the two had reached most dangerous
Page 141 and 142:
[revolutionary propaganda]," a peas
Page 143 and 144:
institutions were also encouraged,
Page 145 and 146:
though it had been considerably imp
Page 147 and 148:
(iv) Emancipation of the peasants,
Page 149 and 150:
three times deferred or in part can
Page 151 and 152:
in the eighties. It is no wonder th
Page 153 and 154:
The edict of 1762 did not in fact r
Page 155 and 156:
itterly resented. Marriage required
Page 157 and 158:
peoples remained with their own cus
Page 159 and 160:
These last two classes were not fre
Page 161 and 162:
not offer such advantages in the wa
Page 163 and 164:
Direct taxation of various kinds, b
Page 165 and 166:
members of the commune regulated in
Page 167 and 168:
organization continued for long to
Page 169 and 170:
The commune or subdivisions of it,
Page 171 and 172:
the peasantry and of the social his
Page 173 and 174:
in composition, and one of Razin's
Page 175 and 176:
from St Petersburg to impose a sett
Page 177 and 178:
If need be the reigning monarch was
Page 179 and 180:
leaving a chain of fires, but witho
Page 181 and 182:
ST DMITRI, VLADIMIR, 1193-97(a)DYAK
Page 183 and 184:
some support from across the fronti
Page 185 and 186:
traditions and the past, may contri
Page 187 and 188:
and their retainers, but there was
Page 189 and 190:
Becket until Nikon, the Patriarch o
Page 191 and 192:
the peasantry, some of which derive
Page 193 and 194:
the west the Lithuanians—the last
Page 195 and 196:
close and far-reaching as the monas
Page 197 and 198:
" I , John, am tsar and priest, up
Page 199 and 200:
the fact that about fourteen per ce
Page 201 and 202:
though in fact they were a return t
Page 203 and 204:
accentuated their disunion and dimi
Page 205 and 206:
he abolished the patriarchate and r
Page 207 and 208:
patriarchate. Disendowment and dise
Page 209 and 210:
during the partition period (1772-1
Page 211 and 212:
the German Blitzkrieg were promptly
Page 213 and 214:
half Russian or Lithuanian. In this
Page 215 and 216:
The state language (to some extent
Page 217 and 218:
Sigismund III of Poland, on the cre
Page 219 and 220:
in the War of the Polish Succession
Page 221 and 222:
earlier in secret conclave with her
Page 223 and 224:
purveyor of cosmopolitan enlightenm
Page 225 and 226:
under his control the grand-duchy o
Page 227 and 228:
continuously against all his Russia
Page 229 and 230:
and could not be understood by Euro
Page 231 and 232:
The peasantry took little part in t
Page 233 and 234:
3. The Ukrainian QuestionThe major
Page 235 and 236:
It is quite true that Russian histo
Page 237 and 238:
pp. 49-50 and note); but they were
Page 239 and 240:
The main reason why the struggle fo
Page 241 and 242:
for the most part their distinctive
Page 243 and 244:
though divided in their attitude to
Page 245 and 246:
For some ten years Ukrainian Commun
Page 247 and 248:
of all Slav and freedom-loving nati
Page 249 and 250:
Empire (see pp. 178-179), but conne
Page 251 and 252:
These generally conservative direct
Page 253 and 254:
Prior to the Crimean War the Slavop
Page 255 and 256:
and the last a great deal, to pansl
Page 257 and 258:
and her liberation from Turkey. A g
Page 259 and 260:
than Buda-Pest or Vienna. Anti-Germ
Page 261 and 262:
Finns, for about seven centuries wi
Page 263 and 264:
Lenin, ceased to be the capital sin
Page 265 and 266:
y the Red Army, but Estonia, Latvia
Page 267 and 268:
towards the Allies were engendered,
Page 269 and 270:
conquest of Finland by the Swedes;
Page 271 and 272:
Half a century after Ivan the Great
Page 273 and 274:
all Swedes—as has already been ex
Page 275 and 276:
had he succeeded in rallying the ma
Page 277 and 278:
the learning and culture of enlight
Page 279 and 280:
Sweden, and Finland, outside direct
Page 281 and 282:
Swedish navy had reasserted itself
Page 283 and 284:
evolution and Finland, to which the
Page 285 and 286:
was a triumph of French diplomacy,
Page 287 and 288:
Straits become a perpetual plague-s
Page 289 and 290:
diplomatic pressure by Russia. Even
Page 291 and 292:
in St Petersburg of a complete brea
Page 293 and 294:
herself and Turkey alone. Now she a
Page 295 and 296:
the congress the Russian and Britis
Page 297 and 298:
an eventual annexation by her of Bo
Page 299 and 300:
uncoiled, the new regime in Russia
Page 301 and 302:
least definitely hostile. For this
Page 303 and 304:
Armenia and Azerbaidzhan (see map i
Page 305 and 306:
Russians and even imposed a conside
Page 307 and 308:
A new Georgian literature and cultu
Page 309 and 310:
Moscow. A month earlier Georgia had
Page 311 and 312:
War, and the triumph, in company wi
Page 313 and 314:
eing in direct relations with the U
Page 315 and 316:
In that year Far Eastern affairs we
Page 317 and 318:
great, but she still remained in po
Page 319 and 320:
new Soviet state was so exhausted a
Page 321 and 322:
there had previously taken place a
Page 323 and 324:
notable withdrawal, but the governm
Page 325 and 326:
CHAPTER VIITHE WEST1. Russia and Eu
Page 327 and 328:
(I)THE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY URALSBogo
Page 329 and 330:
the specifically Russian achievemen
Page 331 and 332:
the West. Such centres were, howeve
Page 333 and 334:
ationalist and scientific thought,
Page 335 and 336:
ight had I," cries Kropotkin in his
Page 337 and 338:
or apathy by the peasants, and the
Page 339 and 340:
had been different again. There had
Page 341 and 342:
messenger sent on a sudden by God t
Page 343 and 344:
mainly because Catholics were synon
Page 345 and 346:
In ' the western lands ' printing,
Page 347 and 348:
(b. 1643, banished to the Arctic 16
Page 349 and 350:
went off as a member of 'the great
Page 351 and 352:
science. He succeeded posthumously
Page 353 and 354: variable and the use of Russian as
Page 355 and 356: or (as for instance Osterman in the
Page 357 and 358: the middle of the eighteenth centur
Page 359 and 360: to the Academy of Sciences, and he
Page 361 and 362: from England and Germany. Russian m
Page 363 and 364: down to the serf's hut. From small
Page 365 and 366: operating in Russia: a 'free labour
Page 367 and 368: and by a few large-scale British-Ru
Page 369 and 370: addition to extremely low purchasin
Page 371 and 372: cent, was held by foreigners, as co
Page 373 and 374: of Bastiat and Cobden. There follow
Page 375 and 376: of Western Art one of the finest co
Page 377 and 378: imperialism in the Middle and Far E
Page 379 and 380: section of the town-dwellers, espec
Page 381 and 382: extent the commune. This helps to a
Page 383 and 384: pay had been made to it, and it was
Page 385 and 386: stood for Western democracy of a li
Page 387 and 388: than any since that of 1891, capped
Page 389 and 390: (4) There were just enough speciali
Page 391 and 392: CoalIron ore . . . .Pig-iron . . .
Page 393 and 394: including agriculture, all transpor
Page 395 and 396: commitments have been incurred than
Page 397 and 398: explicitly emphazised as a most imp
Page 399 and 400: Total populationUrban .Rural .19391
Page 401 and 402: policy pursued in the ten years bef
Page 403: often as not she was one of the dec
Page 407 and 408: country by looting. The Russian arm
Page 409 and 410: illustrated by the Bavarian success
Page 411 and 412: the Napoleonic period hgr eastern i
Page 413 and 414: humbling of their pride and by the
Page 415 and 416: Niemen. Twelve weeks later Napoleon
Page 417 and 418: to the invader. He was torn to the
Page 419 and 420: of European peace might be formed,
Page 421 and 422: and the French, followed by war wit
Page 423 and 424: could to rebuild the rampart, to re
Page 425 and 426: of the Holy Alliance. There were, i
Page 427 and 428: Europe. Left to himself he would sw
Page 429 and 430: with the contrast in their own case
Page 431 and 432: agreed that Russia could not fight,
Page 433 and 434: Ferdinand, in Sarajevo, the capital
Page 435 and 436: The isolation of Russia after the c
Page 437 and 438: only if Germany were not the attack
Page 439 and 440: e disturbed as to the solidity of t
Page 441 and 442: championship of the Polish cause we
Page 443 and 444: and giving it a pro-French orientat
Page 445 and 446: evivified and extended the alliance
Page 447 and 448: powers" was not directly affected b
Page 449 and 450: which was one main reason for the p
Page 451 and 452: against her, had become impracticab
Page 453 and 454: against Western imperialism. The el
Page 455 and 456:
fear drove both to combine, loosely
Page 458 and 459:
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLEDates, as elsewh
Page 460 and 461:
1768-721767-8176417621756-631755175
Page 462 and 463:
1425-62141014081406-814041399139713
Page 464 and 465:
NOTE ON BOOKSTHE following list of
Page 466 and 467:
Times to the Death of Dostoevsky (1
Page 468 and 469:
Sir Bernard Pares, The Fall of the
Page 470 and 471:
INDEXFor Russian foreign relations
Page 472 and 473:
Factory workers: see Industrial dev
Page 474 and 475:
Monasteries: 27, 48, 177-8, 182-4,1
Page 476 and 477:
Skdbelev: 429.Slaves and slavery: 2
show all

Untitled - OUDL Home

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?