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'utopian socialists,' Saint-Simon, Fourier, Proudhon, andLouis Blanc, and the novelist George Sand, gained a verywide, surreptitious popularity among the intelligentsia,which became only too manifest in the much freeratmosphere of the sixties and seventies. By then theideas of J. S. Mill, Buckle, and, above all, Darwinwere competing, together with Comte's positivism andlater Herbert Spencer's sociology; to be succeeded byNietzsche, and, above all, Marx's dialectical materialism.By then, Russia had long been too advanced, toocomplex, and too conscious of her individuality and ofher own creative originality to look to any one foreigncountry for enlightenment. Whether in literature or insocial thought she was a sharer in all sides of Europeancivilization, not as she had been in the eighteenth centuryfor the most part a mere imitator now of this, now ofthat country. Both the revolutionary 1 and the liberalprogressivemovements, which grew so powerfully fromthe sixties onwards and by the time of the 1905 Revolutionhad created a new political climate in Russia, drew fromvery varied European sources; but they transmutedthem into new forms under the pressure of the greatsocial transformations that were taking place as a resultof the emancipation of the serfs (i86i)'and rapid economicwesternization.3. Economic WesternizationDuring the half-century between emancipation andthe First World War industrial revolution profoundlychanged the economic structure of Russian life, and in sodoing westernized it to a far larger extent than previously,even though Russia still remained a predominantlypeasant country, with the most varied contrasts in waysof life and technique.By the beginning of the present century certain of themost obvious features of the Western capitalist andindustrial world were among the dominating influences1No attempt is here made to trace the development of the revolutionarymovements in Russia, beyond what has already been said onPP. 58-59 and 323-325, since they have been fully treated in English,particularly by Masaryk, Maynard, Mavor, and Berdyaev (see p. 454).351