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cent.; in 1929 no pig-iron or steel, in 1940 round about10 per cent, of the Union output. For the first timeKazakhstan and, still more recently, Central Asia arebeing transformed by coal, copper and other metals,by oil, by textile, chemical and other industries. Forthe first time the Far East and the Far North have begunto be developed along new lines, not solely for gold,timber, or fish.The altered location of industry has been powerfullyinfluenced by defence considerations, especially since1937, but it was primarily governed by the existence ofgreat natural resources far away in the interior of thecountry. And, from the first, Soviet planning aimed atregional diversification of economy and at the cuttingdown of the immense cross-hauls that still so greatlyimpede much of Soviet industry, despite the verymarked improvements in railway (and to a much lesserextent water) transport that have taken place since 1935.The spectacular achievements to the east of the Volgadid not mean a shift of industry that spelt any absolutedecline in the old industrial districts. On the contrary,the five-year plans provided for a very large increase intheir output. What has declined has been, in mostbranches, the relative share of the old centres in totalUnion production. Even so, that share remained verylarge. The Caucasus and the Ukraine were still, asbefore 1914, far the largest producers of oil andmanganese,coal, iron and steel (cf. pp. 234 and 364). The essentialimportance of the Ukraine and the Moscow and Leningradregions, for e.g. coal, iron ore and steel, textiles, engineeringand machine industry, aluminium, cement and sugarbeet,has been tragically experienced by the loss orwrecking of so much western territory since June 1941.On the industrial front, the terrible storms of the warhave so far been weathered owing to the evacuationeastward of much plant and skilled labour, to Alliedshipments of supplies, and above all to the heroism andstamina of the Red Army and the Soviet peoples. Thecombined effects of these three factors have enabledthe newer, eastern industries to expand enormously.That they were in a position to do so was due to the387