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saint (he was also officially canonized) in Tikhon Zadonsky(1724-83), the prototype of Father Zosima in Dostoevsky'sBrothers Karamazov. But what the church most needed,a Leo XIII, it could not produce: it was given instead aPius IX—Pobedonostsev (1827-1907), Procurator to theSynod from 1880 to 1905. The deepest currents ofOrthodox religious life in the nineteenth century tendedto flow in new channels, through the spiritual leadershipof monastic elders, especially in Optyna monastery, and,in conjunction with them, through certain sections ofthe laity (above all the Slavophils, see p. 241), towhom belonged the three greatest religious thinkers andwriters of the century. The activity of the laity, notonly in theology and learning but also in attempts atreform in the church, continued to be a conspicuousfeature of Russian Orthodoxy during the 1905 and 1917Revolutions.When the storm of 1917 broke the Orthodox churchwas the one great institution in Russia which had remainedunaltered either by the reforms of the eighteensixtiesor by the 1905 Revolution. Freedom of consciencefor all religions in the empire had been grantedin 1905 and thereafter to a large extent allowed inpractice (with the glaring exception of the Uniats), butthe far-reaching demands put forward in 1905 forreforms in the Orthodox church and a national churchcouncil were sidetracked by the reactionaries when theyregained command. Yet the position of the church wasbecoming more undermined through the weakness ofNicholas II, "supreme defender and protector of theruling faith and guardian of orthodoxy . . . and in thissense Head of the Church,'' who notoriously yieldedmore and more to the magnetic influence, especially overthe empress, of Rasputin, a Siberian peasant debaucheeacting as ' man of God' and healer, who came to dictateappointments, high and low, in church and state alike.Rasputin was murdered in December 1916. Threemonths later Nicholas II was forced to abdicate. Bythe end of the year the Synod had been swept away. Anational church council, elected predominantly by thelaity, was set in its place together with the restored195
patriarchate. Disendowment and disestablishment wereexpected from the constituent assembly which wasabout to meet. Both came; but from the Bolsheviks,in the most extreme form; and they added prohibitionof religious rites if they disturbed public order and ofreligious instruction in all schools. The new PatriarchTikhon retaliated by excommunicating the wholeBolshevik party. In 1905 reform might have seized andstrengthened the church; in 1918 revolution seizedand rent it.196
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UNIVERSALLIBRARYOU_214617UNIVERSALL
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SURVEYOFRUSSIAN HISTORYbyB. H. SUMN
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CHAPTERI. THE FRONTIERCONTENTS1. TY
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MAPS1. THE U.S.S.R. (WESTERN PORTIO
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Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and
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MAP IU.S.S.R. (WESTERN PORTION)West
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half-Russian), the Transcaucasian r
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honey, and wax provided essentials
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called podzol soils, grey sands and
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(I)ST JOHN THE BAPTIST, YAROSLAVL,
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movement of game and fur-bearing an
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By the sixteenth century the scatte
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other natural conditions made agric
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population were relatively free pea
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similar, and for centuries they had
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merchant-adventurers and sea-captai
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Byzantium or eastward into the step
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and external struggles, especially
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and opened the vista of the Volga a
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social conditions in Poland fomente
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followed slowly by the plough, into
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frontier region was less all-pervad
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For long a certain degree of mobili
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gone down river far away south into
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elected but appointed by the war mi
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Cossacks, 'men of service' settled
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sites. Some settled in the old Sibe
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(I)PETER THE GREAT, 1672-1725From t
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contrary it is necessary that there
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(according to the old Russian calen
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even a member of it after 1923. He
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headed first by the moderate libera
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words, "the regime of the dictators
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"the Supreme, Autocratic power belo
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was spoken of as a dress rehearsal.
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The bureaucracy meant the governmen
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the army in decomposition, there wa
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odies, the provincial and municipal
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functions and together with the pol
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Muscovy as the patrimony of the tsa
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his eldest son or, failing sons, to
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and then killed, as being the rally
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officers, but they were educated th
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The Byzantine inheritance is more d
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the necessity for unfettered autocr
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manorial administration of the prin
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the first concern of tsarism and in
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Ivan was a man who did not take ris
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extinguished, largely because after
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een broken down during the two prev
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Similarly, the council of magnates
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portion of his own handiwork in fra
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On the other hand, they could not u
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eigned 1801-25) was part of his gen
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particularly their generals-adjutan
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pleading of which might excite publ
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1793, 1795; Finland, 1721, 1743, 18
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producer and trader in his realm. T
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instituted (1804) a regularly organ
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of agriculture, took on a new form
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inevitably a full-scale revolution
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at a tempo unknown in the modern hi
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election is usually in effect contr
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'and sown grasses, even though cere
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the two had reached most dangerous
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[revolutionary propaganda]," a peas
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institutions were also encouraged,
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though it had been considerably imp
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(iv) Emancipation of the peasants,
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three times deferred or in part can
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in the eighties. It is no wonder th
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The edict of 1762 did not in fact r
Page 155 and 156: itterly resented. Marriage required
Page 157 and 158: peoples remained with their own cus
Page 159 and 160: These last two classes were not fre
Page 161 and 162: not offer such advantages in the wa
Page 163 and 164: Direct taxation of various kinds, b
Page 165 and 166: members of the commune regulated in
Page 167 and 168: organization continued for long to
Page 169 and 170: The commune or subdivisions of it,
Page 171 and 172: the peasantry and of the social his
Page 173 and 174: in composition, and one of Razin's
Page 175 and 176: from St Petersburg to impose a sett
Page 177 and 178: If need be the reigning monarch was
Page 179 and 180: leaving a chain of fires, but witho
Page 181 and 182: ST DMITRI, VLADIMIR, 1193-97(a)DYAK
Page 183 and 184: some support from across the fronti
Page 185 and 186: traditions and the past, may contri
Page 187 and 188: and their retainers, but there was
Page 189 and 190: Becket until Nikon, the Patriarch o
Page 191 and 192: the peasantry, some of which derive
Page 193 and 194: the west the Lithuanians—the last
Page 195 and 196: close and far-reaching as the monas
Page 197 and 198: " I , John, am tsar and priest, up
Page 199 and 200: the fact that about fourteen per ce
Page 201 and 202: though in fact they were a return t
Page 203 and 204: accentuated their disunion and dimi
Page 205: he abolished the patriarchate and r
Page 209 and 210: during the partition period (1772-1
Page 211 and 212: the German Blitzkrieg were promptly
Page 213 and 214: half Russian or Lithuanian. In this
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Page 217 and 218: Sigismund III of Poland, on the cre
Page 219 and 220: in the War of the Polish Succession
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Page 225 and 226: under his control the grand-duchy o
Page 227 and 228: continuously against all his Russia
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Page 231 and 232: The peasantry took little part in t
Page 233 and 234: 3. The Ukrainian QuestionThe major
Page 235 and 236: It is quite true that Russian histo
Page 237 and 238: pp. 49-50 and note); but they were
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Page 241 and 242: for the most part their distinctive
Page 243 and 244: though divided in their attitude to
Page 245 and 246: For some ten years Ukrainian Commun
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Page 249 and 250: Empire (see pp. 178-179), but conne
Page 251 and 252: These generally conservative direct
Page 253 and 254: Prior to the Crimean War the Slavop
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and her liberation from Turkey. A g
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than Buda-Pest or Vienna. Anti-Germ
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Finns, for about seven centuries wi
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Lenin, ceased to be the capital sin
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y the Red Army, but Estonia, Latvia
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towards the Allies were engendered,
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conquest of Finland by the Swedes;
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Half a century after Ivan the Great
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all Swedes—as has already been ex
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had he succeeded in rallying the ma
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the learning and culture of enlight
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Sweden, and Finland, outside direct
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Swedish navy had reasserted itself
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evolution and Finland, to which the
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was a triumph of French diplomacy,
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Straits become a perpetual plague-s
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diplomatic pressure by Russia. Even
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in St Petersburg of a complete brea
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herself and Turkey alone. Now she a
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the congress the Russian and Britis
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an eventual annexation by her of Bo
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uncoiled, the new regime in Russia
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least definitely hostile. For this
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Armenia and Azerbaidzhan (see map i
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Russians and even imposed a conside
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A new Georgian literature and cultu
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Moscow. A month earlier Georgia had
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War, and the triumph, in company wi
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eing in direct relations with the U
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In that year Far Eastern affairs we
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great, but she still remained in po
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new Soviet state was so exhausted a
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there had previously taken place a
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notable withdrawal, but the governm
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CHAPTER VIITHE WEST1. Russia and Eu
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(I)THE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY URALSBogo
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the specifically Russian achievemen
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the West. Such centres were, howeve
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ationalist and scientific thought,
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ight had I," cries Kropotkin in his
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or apathy by the peasants, and the
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had been different again. There had
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messenger sent on a sudden by God t
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mainly because Catholics were synon
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In ' the western lands ' printing,
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(b. 1643, banished to the Arctic 16
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went off as a member of 'the great
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science. He succeeded posthumously
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variable and the use of Russian as
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or (as for instance Osterman in the
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the middle of the eighteenth centur
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to the Academy of Sciences, and he
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from England and Germany. Russian m
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down to the serf's hut. From small
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operating in Russia: a 'free labour
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and by a few large-scale British-Ru
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addition to extremely low purchasin
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cent, was held by foreigners, as co
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of Bastiat and Cobden. There follow
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of Western Art one of the finest co
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imperialism in the Middle and Far E
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section of the town-dwellers, espec
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extent the commune. This helps to a
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pay had been made to it, and it was
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stood for Western democracy of a li
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than any since that of 1891, capped
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(4) There were just enough speciali
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CoalIron ore . . . .Pig-iron . . .
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including agriculture, all transpor
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commitments have been incurred than
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explicitly emphazised as a most imp
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Total populationUrban .Rural .19391
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policy pursued in the ten years bef
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often as not she was one of the dec
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Russia, as the Crimean War gave amp
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country by looting. The Russian arm
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illustrated by the Bavarian success
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the Napoleonic period hgr eastern i
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humbling of their pride and by the
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Niemen. Twelve weeks later Napoleon
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to the invader. He was torn to the
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of European peace might be formed,
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and the French, followed by war wit
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could to rebuild the rampart, to re
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of the Holy Alliance. There were, i
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Europe. Left to himself he would sw
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with the contrast in their own case
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agreed that Russia could not fight,
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Ferdinand, in Sarajevo, the capital
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The isolation of Russia after the c
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only if Germany were not the attack
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e disturbed as to the solidity of t
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championship of the Polish cause we
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and giving it a pro-French orientat
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evivified and extended the alliance
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powers" was not directly affected b
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which was one main reason for the p
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against her, had become impracticab
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against Western imperialism. The el
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fear drove both to combine, loosely
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CHRONOLOGICAL TABLEDates, as elsewh
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1768-721767-8176417621756-631755175
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1425-62141014081406-814041399139713
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NOTE ON BOOKSTHE following list of
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Times to the Death of Dostoevsky (1
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Sir Bernard Pares, The Fall of the
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INDEXFor Russian foreign relations
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Factory workers: see Industrial dev
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Monasteries: 27, 48, 177-8, 182-4,1
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Skdbelev: 429.Slaves and slavery: 2
show all

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