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the peasantry and of the social history of Russia duringthe two and half centuries before the ending of serfdom.(i) Each of the great revolts, except that of Bolotnikovin its earlier stages, was headed by the Cossacks, of theDon or the Ural. They supplied almost all the leaders,and they were indispensable in firing the peasantry on alarge scale and in providing some military organizationand leadership. But as they swept up northwards theydwindled in numbers and became less sure of themselves.Further, the most numerous element among the Cossackrebels were the needy newcomers and runaway peasants,'the bare backs,' flocking south especially after 1650 toescape from serfdom, who, as has been seen (p. 51),had little in common with the privileged Cossackoligarchy of the lower Don, most of which held alooffrom the rebels or even opposed them. Neither Razinnor Bulavin succeeded in establishing a secure basein the lower Don, and there was no rising on theDon to join Pugachov. Nor did Razin or Bulavinsucceed in linking up with the Ukraine and the ZaporozhianCossacks (cf. p. 228). Although many individualUkrainians joined their bands, local differences anddisputes were too pronounced for any combinationagainst Moscow.(2) The main seriousness of the revolts lay in thecombination of Cossacks with the serfs and other classesof peasants (and not only Russian peasants). Bondedserfs and state or court peasants usually made commoncause, and in the revolt of Pugachov a very prominentrole was played in the Urals by the peasants ascribed tothe mines and metal works. This new eighteenthcenturyclass of serfs (see p. 147) had their specialgrievances. The great majority of them had to workso many days a year at works far away from their ownvillages and were but unskilled industrial labour, halfagricultural and sharing the traditions and interests ofpeasants. On the other hand, the small nucleus ofskilled workers had a different outlook; for they livedpermanently at the works and depended on them: hencethey wanted their wretched working conditions bettered,but they did not favour the destruction of the works,