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Above all, neoslavism, in which the Czechs took aspecially prominent part, was the result of new developmentsin south-eastern Europe. Austria-Hungarychanged its ten-year policy of combining with Russiato keep the Balkans on ice and embarked on a newforward policy, signalized by the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908. At the same time the grant ofuniversal manhood suffrage in Austria (1907), with itsinevitable repercussions in Hungary, rendered yet moreserious the problem of their Slav nationalities. Thesenow represented a formidable, though still divided,challenge to the German-Magyar domination which wasthe basis of the Dual Monarchy ever since its birth in1867.The Jugoslavs were the greatest danger, since acrossthe frontier Serbia, after the bloody coup d'etat of 1903,restored the russophil Karageorgevich dynasty, brokewith Austria-Hungary, linked up closely again withRussia, and drew towards Bulgaria. The Young Turkrevolution of 1908, the Bosnian crisis of 1908-9 resultingin the humiliation of Russia and Serbia by Austria-Hungary and Germany, the making of the Balkan allianceand the two Balkan wars (1912-13), first against Turkey,then against Bulgaria, made the Slav lands a storm centreof international relations and the object of intense interestand feeling for Russia.Neoslavism gave birth to the striking novelty of aseries of annual Slav conferences (1908-12), in Prague,St Petersburg, Sofia, and Belgrade, but not in Warsaw;attended by Russians and representatives of variousparties from all the Balkan and Austrian Slavs, thoughnot from those of Hungary or Germany. Orthodoxywas definitely abandoned as the keynote of neoslavism(except in eastern Galicia). Plans were made for anextension of Slav cultural and economic links. Whatpolitical form their common links might ultimately takeremained very dubious, but the essential was the beliefin the early break-up of the Dual Monarchy, almostcertainly through war, in which the aid of Russia wouldbe indispensable for the other Slavs.Berlin figured as even more the enemy of Slavdom247
than Buda-Pest or Vienna. Anti-Germanism was in theforefront and was the one tie which inclined Poles toinitial co-operation in the Slav conferences. Later, theBalkans and the mutual relations of the Serbs andBulgars bulked large, both for the Russian foreign officeand for unofficial agencies. They were at first successfulin linking Serbia and Bulgaria together, with Greeceand Montenegro, in the Balkan League (1912), but theywere unable to prevent the second fratricidal war in thefollowing year, or the third in 1915 (c,'. p. 418). 1In Russia neoslavism, though supported by someindividual liberals, was closely connected with varioustrends of conservative opinion and with the government.The contrast between tsarist reaction after 1907 andsome form of new Danubian democracy under Slavleadership such as discussed by Czechs could not failto cast a deep shadow over neoslavism. Common Slavendeavours were weakened not only by the old stumblingblockof Russia as an autocracy and by the poisonedrelations between Serbs and Bulgars, but also by theold feud between Russians and Poles. A reconciliationof this feud had been the first object of neoslavism, butit failed. In the Russian foreign office under Sazonov(1910-16) it was recognized that "the road to Constantinoplelies through Warsaw.'' But Sazonov wasnot a man who could enforce his conciliatory views,least of all against the ministry of interior. He securedonly the proclamation to the Poles issued under thename of the grand duke Nicholas in August 1914 (cf.p. 221) but no tangible concessions.-Yet, despite the various divisions among the Slavsand the few concrete results produced by neoslavism,the mutual links between Russia and the other Slavs(even perhaps including the Poles) were more numerousand stronger in 1914 than before, and Russia was morewidely conscious of the clash between Slavdom andGermanism than at any time until 1941.1The first Serbian-Bulgarian war had been fought in 1885 and endedin the victory of Bulgaria, the only one of the three to do so. Thefourth is now being waged.248
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UNIVERSALLIBRARYOU_214617UNIVERSALL
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SURVEYOFRUSSIAN HISTORYbyB. H. SUMN
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CHAPTERI. THE FRONTIERCONTENTS1. TY
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MAPS1. THE U.S.S.R. (WESTERN PORTIO
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Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and
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MAP IU.S.S.R. (WESTERN PORTION)West
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half-Russian), the Transcaucasian r
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honey, and wax provided essentials
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called podzol soils, grey sands and
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(I)ST JOHN THE BAPTIST, YAROSLAVL,
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movement of game and fur-bearing an
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By the sixteenth century the scatte
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other natural conditions made agric
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population were relatively free pea
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similar, and for centuries they had
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merchant-adventurers and sea-captai
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Byzantium or eastward into the step
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and external struggles, especially
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and opened the vista of the Volga a
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social conditions in Poland fomente
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followed slowly by the plough, into
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frontier region was less all-pervad
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For long a certain degree of mobili
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gone down river far away south into
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elected but appointed by the war mi
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Cossacks, 'men of service' settled
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sites. Some settled in the old Sibe
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(I)PETER THE GREAT, 1672-1725From t
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contrary it is necessary that there
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(according to the old Russian calen
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even a member of it after 1923. He
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headed first by the moderate libera
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words, "the regime of the dictators
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"the Supreme, Autocratic power belo
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was spoken of as a dress rehearsal.
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The bureaucracy meant the governmen
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the army in decomposition, there wa
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odies, the provincial and municipal
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functions and together with the pol
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Muscovy as the patrimony of the tsa
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his eldest son or, failing sons, to
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and then killed, as being the rally
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officers, but they were educated th
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The Byzantine inheritance is more d
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the necessity for unfettered autocr
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manorial administration of the prin
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the first concern of tsarism and in
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Ivan was a man who did not take ris
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extinguished, largely because after
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een broken down during the two prev
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Similarly, the council of magnates
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portion of his own handiwork in fra
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On the other hand, they could not u
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eigned 1801-25) was part of his gen
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particularly their generals-adjutan
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pleading of which might excite publ
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1793, 1795; Finland, 1721, 1743, 18
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producer and trader in his realm. T
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instituted (1804) a regularly organ
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of agriculture, took on a new form
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inevitably a full-scale revolution
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at a tempo unknown in the modern hi
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election is usually in effect contr
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'and sown grasses, even though cere
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the two had reached most dangerous
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[revolutionary propaganda]," a peas
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institutions were also encouraged,
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though it had been considerably imp
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(iv) Emancipation of the peasants,
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three times deferred or in part can
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in the eighties. It is no wonder th
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The edict of 1762 did not in fact r
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itterly resented. Marriage required
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peoples remained with their own cus
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These last two classes were not fre
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not offer such advantages in the wa
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Direct taxation of various kinds, b
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members of the commune regulated in
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organization continued for long to
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The commune or subdivisions of it,
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the peasantry and of the social his
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in composition, and one of Razin's
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from St Petersburg to impose a sett
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If need be the reigning monarch was
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leaving a chain of fires, but witho
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ST DMITRI, VLADIMIR, 1193-97(a)DYAK
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some support from across the fronti
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traditions and the past, may contri
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and their retainers, but there was
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Becket until Nikon, the Patriarch o
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the peasantry, some of which derive
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the west the Lithuanians—the last
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close and far-reaching as the monas
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" I , John, am tsar and priest, up
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the fact that about fourteen per ce
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though in fact they were a return t
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accentuated their disunion and dimi
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he abolished the patriarchate and r
Page 207 and 208: patriarchate. Disendowment and dise
Page 209 and 210: during the partition period (1772-1
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Page 213 and 214: half Russian or Lithuanian. In this
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Page 217 and 218: Sigismund III of Poland, on the cre
Page 219 and 220: in the War of the Polish Succession
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Page 223 and 224: purveyor of cosmopolitan enlightenm
Page 225 and 226: under his control the grand-duchy o
Page 227 and 228: continuously against all his Russia
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Page 231 and 232: The peasantry took little part in t
Page 233 and 234: 3. The Ukrainian QuestionThe major
Page 235 and 236: It is quite true that Russian histo
Page 237 and 238: pp. 49-50 and note); but they were
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Page 241 and 242: for the most part their distinctive
Page 243 and 244: though divided in their attitude to
Page 245 and 246: For some ten years Ukrainian Commun
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Page 251 and 252: These generally conservative direct
Page 253 and 254: Prior to the Crimean War the Slavop
Page 255 and 256: and the last a great deal, to pansl
Page 257: and her liberation from Turkey. A g
Page 261 and 262: Finns, for about seven centuries wi
Page 263 and 264: Lenin, ceased to be the capital sin
Page 265 and 266: y the Red Army, but Estonia, Latvia
Page 267 and 268: towards the Allies were engendered,
Page 269 and 270: conquest of Finland by the Swedes;
Page 271 and 272: Half a century after Ivan the Great
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Page 275 and 276: had he succeeded in rallying the ma
Page 277 and 278: the learning and culture of enlight
Page 279 and 280: Sweden, and Finland, outside direct
Page 281 and 282: Swedish navy had reasserted itself
Page 283 and 284: evolution and Finland, to which the
Page 285 and 286: was a triumph of French diplomacy,
Page 287 and 288: Straits become a perpetual plague-s
Page 289 and 290: diplomatic pressure by Russia. Even
Page 291 and 292: in St Petersburg of a complete brea
Page 293 and 294: herself and Turkey alone. Now she a
Page 295 and 296: the congress the Russian and Britis
Page 297 and 298: an eventual annexation by her of Bo
Page 299 and 300: uncoiled, the new regime in Russia
Page 301 and 302: least definitely hostile. For this
Page 303 and 304: Armenia and Azerbaidzhan (see map i
Page 305 and 306: Russians and even imposed a conside
Page 307 and 308: A new Georgian literature and cultu
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Moscow. A month earlier Georgia had
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War, and the triumph, in company wi
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eing in direct relations with the U
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In that year Far Eastern affairs we
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great, but she still remained in po
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new Soviet state was so exhausted a
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there had previously taken place a
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notable withdrawal, but the governm
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CHAPTER VIITHE WEST1. Russia and Eu
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(I)THE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY URALSBogo
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the specifically Russian achievemen
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the West. Such centres were, howeve
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ationalist and scientific thought,
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ight had I," cries Kropotkin in his
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or apathy by the peasants, and the
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had been different again. There had
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messenger sent on a sudden by God t
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mainly because Catholics were synon
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In ' the western lands ' printing,
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(b. 1643, banished to the Arctic 16
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went off as a member of 'the great
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science. He succeeded posthumously
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variable and the use of Russian as
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or (as for instance Osterman in the
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the middle of the eighteenth centur
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to the Academy of Sciences, and he
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from England and Germany. Russian m
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down to the serf's hut. From small
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operating in Russia: a 'free labour
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and by a few large-scale British-Ru
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addition to extremely low purchasin
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cent, was held by foreigners, as co
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of Bastiat and Cobden. There follow
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of Western Art one of the finest co
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imperialism in the Middle and Far E
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section of the town-dwellers, espec
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extent the commune. This helps to a
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pay had been made to it, and it was
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stood for Western democracy of a li
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than any since that of 1891, capped
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(4) There were just enough speciali
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CoalIron ore . . . .Pig-iron . . .
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including agriculture, all transpor
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commitments have been incurred than
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explicitly emphazised as a most imp
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Total populationUrban .Rural .19391
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policy pursued in the ten years bef
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often as not she was one of the dec
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Russia, as the Crimean War gave amp
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country by looting. The Russian arm
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illustrated by the Bavarian success
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the Napoleonic period hgr eastern i
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humbling of their pride and by the
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Niemen. Twelve weeks later Napoleon
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to the invader. He was torn to the
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of European peace might be formed,
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and the French, followed by war wit
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could to rebuild the rampart, to re
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of the Holy Alliance. There were, i
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Europe. Left to himself he would sw
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with the contrast in their own case
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agreed that Russia could not fight,
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Ferdinand, in Sarajevo, the capital
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The isolation of Russia after the c
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only if Germany were not the attack
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e disturbed as to the solidity of t
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championship of the Polish cause we
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and giving it a pro-French orientat
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evivified and extended the alliance
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powers" was not directly affected b
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which was one main reason for the p
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against her, had become impracticab
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against Western imperialism. The el
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fear drove both to combine, loosely
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CHRONOLOGICAL TABLEDates, as elsewh
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1768-721767-8176417621756-631755175
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1425-62141014081406-814041399139713
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NOTE ON BOOKSTHE following list of
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Times to the Death of Dostoevsky (1
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Sir Bernard Pares, The Fall of the
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INDEXFor Russian foreign relations
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Factory workers: see Industrial dev
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Monasteries: 27, 48, 177-8, 182-4,1
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Skdbelev: 429.Slaves and slavery: 2
show all

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