Horticulture Principles and Practices

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Source of Water The quality of local water depends on its source because of groundwater pollution problems and water treatment programs. Even where domestic water is used for irrigation, it should be noted that cities treat their water differently. Some add fluoride (called fluoridation) to reduce tooth decay in humans. Unfortunately, many plants, including the spider plant (Chlorophytum), corn plant (Drocaena fragrans), and spineless yucca (Yucca elephantipes), are sensitive to and injured by fluoride. Most of these plants belong to the families Liliaceae and Marantaceae. Chlorine is less of a problem but nonetheless injurious to some plants, such as roses, when the concentration reaches about 0.4 parts per million (ppm). When the source of water is a well, the level of soluble salts (sodium and boron) is often high. Many arid coastal regions have high boron toxicity; liming of soil reduces the potential for this problem. Bicarbonate is another water pollutant that affects plant growth. Water Application Methods Hand Watering The age-old method of hand watering by using a watering container or water hose is appropriate for small-scale watering. When a large area is involved, commercial companies often use automated systems. Even then, hand watering may be best and is thus used on certain occasions. The devices used are equipped with nozzles designed for a variety of situations. Some provide fine, misty sprays and others coarser sprays. Watering seedlings and newly sown seeds requires a fine spray. Applying water uniformly is difficult when hand watering. One of the advantages of hand watering is the instant judgment of the operator as to whether a plant needs water. Also, a keen operator can observe any problems (e.g., diseases and insect pests) during hand watering. Automatic Watering Systems Automatic watering systems differ in cost, efficiency, and flexibility. Some are semiautomatic and must be switched on and off. In a truly automatic system, the operation is controlled by a programmable timer, which allows watering to occur for a specified period. TUBE WATERING Growers use sophisticated methods of water application for premiumquality produce. The tube watering system is the most widely used system of watering for potted plants. When flowers are grown for the fresh flower market, they must be clean. Water is administered only to the soil in the bed without splashing on the plants, which reduces the chance for disease spread. By using microtubes, individual pots can be automatically watered to provide water in the right amounts and at the right frequency for high quality. Two commonly used tube watering systems are the Chapin and Stuppy® systems. The difference between the two lies in the weights at the end of each tube. The Chapin system uses a lead weight, and the Stuppy uses plastic (Figure 12–34). Tube watering is also amenable to the application of water-soluble chemicals (e.g., growth hormones and fertilizers). The system is expensive to install and not flexible. Pots on the bench have to be uniform in size, and the tubes must be inspected periodically to ensure that no blockage exists. CAPILLARY MAT The capillary mat is a subirrigation system in which potted plants are placed on a water-absorbing fiber mat covered with a perforated plastic sheet (Figure 12–35). Water is absorbed by capillary action through the drainage holes in the bottoms of the pots. The mat is kept moist by tubes installed on the bench. Potted plants such as African violets are watered by this method. A capillary mat is flexible and easy to install. Different pot sizes can be accommodated simultaneously. Further, it is easy to rearrange plants as required by growth. For the system to work properly, the mat must be placed on a level surface. One problem with using a capillary mat is the growth of algae. OVERHEAD SPRINKLERS When used on ground beds, nozzles are mounted on risers whose height depends on the mature height of the crop (Figure 12–36). For plants on benches, the sprinkler nozzles may be suspended above the plants. Overhead sprinklers wet the foliage and predispose it to diseases (Figure 12–37). Watering should be done 12.3 Internal Environmental Control 429
FIGURE 12–34 Microirrigation system. Also called the tube, or “spaghetti,” watering system. Ooze tubes Water supply tube Water emission end FIGURE 12–35 A capillary mat watering system. Potted plant Capillary mat Attachment to water source Drip hoses Header adapter FIGURE 12–36 An overhead irrigation system for watering plants on greenhouse benches. (Source: George Acquaah) 430 Chapter 12 Controlled-Environment Horticulture
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HORTICULTURE Principles and Practic
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HORTICULTURE Principles and Practic
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With love to Theresa, quarterback;
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Brief Contents Preface xxi PART 1 T
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Contents Preface xxi PART 1 THE UND
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5.3 PLANT GROWTH PROCESSES 160 5.4
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8.20 COMMON GREENHOUSE DISEASES 276
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12.3 INTERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
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PART 6 Summary 541 References and S
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22.18 INDOOR COMPOSTING SYSTEMS 668
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Preface Horticulture is the area of
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am very grateful
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PART 1 THE UNDERLYING SCIENCE CHAPT
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1 What Is Horticulture? PURPOSE AND
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(a) (c) (b) (d) FIGURE 1-1 The many
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FIGURE 1 Bridge. The plaza view of
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CYCADS Many people mistake these pr
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FIGURE 2 The world's largest unbran
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FIGURE 2 Sold flowers are loaded on
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FIGURE 1-4 Formal landscaping featu
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1.4 ROLEOFTHENURSERY AND SEED INDUS
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1.5 HORTICULTURE AND SOCIETY Hortic
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TABLE 1-3 U.S. Horticultural Export
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Turfgrass Operation 1. Landscape te
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What Is Horticulture? This site pro
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Examples of botanical gardens http:
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2 Classifying and Naming Horticultu
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Eight major taxa are commonly used
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TABLE 2-3 The Divisions of the King
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HISTORY OF PLANT TAXONOMY PAUL R. F
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AGE OF HERBALISTS Two major events
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possible system of nomenclature. Ho
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TABLE 1 Type Categories for Plant N
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2.3 OTHER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS (O
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2. Shrubs. A shrub has no main trun
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Simple Fruits Fleshy Fruits Drupe B
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FIGURE 2-14 A pome, represented by
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2.3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES
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(a) (b) FIGURE 2-22 (Source: George
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FIGURE 2-25 A narrowleaf plant. (So
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FIGURE 2-29 Parts of a typical gras
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such as rosemary, sage, thyme, marj
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c. Leaves d. Bulbs 2. Cut across (t
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Whole plant Organs FIGURE 3-1 Level
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ibonucleic acid (RNA), proteins, an
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called cristae; this extreme foldin
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By virtue of its position, the prim
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Phloem Tissue Structurally, phloem
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(a) Stalk (b) Culm FIGURE 3-5 Cross
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Scale Compressed stem (a) Whole bul
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Upper epidermis Palisade layer FIGU
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usually occur in xerophytes. In cer
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FIGURE 3-22 Selected common leaf ma
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FIGURE 3-25 Selected common leaf ti
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absorption of water and minerals fr
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Outer bark Inner bark FIGURE 3-37 T
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Anther Filament Stamen FIGURE 3-41
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Exocarp Parts of a typi- FIGURE 3-4
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PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE LABORATORY 1.
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4.1 CLIMATE, WEATHER, AND HORTICULT
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concentration in the atmosphere.A c
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TABLE 4-1 Climatic Adaptation of Se
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and upward. Another important gener
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Rate of photosynthesis mg/sq. dm/hr
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and plants that flower under only c
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times of the year. Growers start th
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content. This section is sometimes
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TABLE 4-7 Soil Mineral Nutrients Es
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Micronutrients (Trace Elements) Mic
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Neutral FIGURE 4-11 A representatio
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4.4 FERTILIZERS Fertilizer sources
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One of the most commonly used contr
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Chlorosis (the yellowing of green l
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Fertilizers may be applied before p
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It is neither practical nor safe to
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Solution: How much of ammonium nitr
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1°C (34°F), the optimum temperatu
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Cellulose sponge Perched water tabl
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Overhead Sprinkler Irrigation Water
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FIGURE 4-19 Furrow irrigation of le
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can self-install an underground irr
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1. Surface drainage. Surface draina
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Secondary Tillage Primary tillage i
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(a) (b) (c) (d) FIGURE 4-20 (Source
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texture. The most commonly used gra
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TABLE 4-11 Selected Standard Mixes
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Steam Pasteurization Steam pasteuri
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Maracher, H. 1986. Mineral nutritio
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5 Plant Physiology PURPOSE AND EXPE
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Growth in an organism follows a cer
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5.1.2 THE ROLE OF SIGNALS IN GROWTH
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waxes are embedded. Waxes consist o
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5.3.1 PHOTOSYNTHESIS Photosynthesis
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CO 2 FIGURE 5-6 The C 4 pathway of
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Growth and Development The general
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TABLE 5-2 Energy Produced from Aero
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Certain plants are adapted to dry e
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conditions exist to sustain growth
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Shoot Elongation In certain plants,
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for success, since high temperature
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FIGURE 5-13 Ripening of plantain sh
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Terminal bud removed Unbranched pla
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conditions—pertaining to light, m
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them to maturity. The major process
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6 Breeding Horticultural Plants PUR
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Similarly, there can be no plant br
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APPLICATION, CHALLENGES, AND PROSPE
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hit with target DNA. Therefore, it
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Generally, within ten days of exper
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Aziz A.N., Sauve R.J., Zhou S., 200
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(b) F 1 Rr Rr round round F 2 RR R
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e.g., Aa × Aa), the lethal allele
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eeder’s equation. Simply stated,
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Before the seed or product becomes
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6.18.2 THE GENERAL STEPS OF RDNA TE
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2. Political disagreement. There ar
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REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING Ac
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PART 2 PROTECTING HORTICULTURAL PLA
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7 Biological Enemies of Horticultur
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8. Weeds may clog drains, waterways
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is also a root parasite that obtain
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LEGISLATIVE Both state and federal
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Example Integrated cultural, physic
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7.4.2 IMPORTANT INSECT ORDERS Insec
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Egg FIGURE 7-3 Life cycle of an ins
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sucking insects (also found with so
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FIGURE 7-12 Corn earworm damage. (S
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TABLE 7-1 Selected Fungal Diseases
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7.6.1 SMALL ANIMALS Rabbits, mice,
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FIGURE 7-16 The disease triangle. P
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fungitoxic exudates in its leaves,
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SUMMARY Insects are a major class o
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For the home growers or those who c
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for consumers and the environment).
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TABLE 8-1 Strategy 4: Strategies an
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gibberellic acid spray overcomes st
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In a competitive industry, a variet
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Chemicals gain access to humans thr
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2. Pesticide management. Controllin
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Every organism has its natural enem
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TABLE 8-3 Selected Examples of Biol
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1 2 YEAR 3 4 FIGURE 8-5 cycle. A cr
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6. Heat treatment. In the greenhous
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Organic Compounds (Organics) Organi
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under enclosed conditions (e.g., wa
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FIGURE 8-9 A tractor-mounted spraye
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8.11.9 LANDSCAPE PESTS AND THEIR CO
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application, a particular herbicide
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Further, they do not provide unifor
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SUMMARY Herbicides are chemicals us
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Sulfur may be applied for both prev
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8.23 PREVENTING GREENHOUSE DISEASES
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PART 3 PROPAGATING HORTICULTURAL PL
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9 Sexual Propagation PURPOSE AND EX
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Anther Microspore Megaspore mother
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Lettuce seeds Red light Darkness Fa
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FEDERAL AND STATE SEED LAWS Federal
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Germination Test In laboratory prac
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FIGURE 15 The essential structures
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processing into flour or meal). How
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physiologically immature seeds must
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seeds may be treated in this way be
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The two basic modes of seedling eme
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locations in the field. Home garden
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FIGURE 9-9 A plastic flat. (Source:
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(a) (b) FIGURE 9-12 (a) Sowing seed
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y the gardener or grower. Whatever
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REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING Co
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species enables vegetative propagat
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for rapid rooting. There are two ba
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Cutting involving one node (e.g., s
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This practice is especially importa
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10.6.4 STICKING THE CUTTING Cutting
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(a) Indexing by budding Diseased pl
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10.11 M ETHODS OF GRAFTING Grafting
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Scion Wax FIGURE 10-17 Steps in bar
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MODULE 3 BUDDING 10.12 TYPES OF BUD
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MODULE 4 LAYERING 10.13 TYPES OF LA
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Buried part of shoot is nicked FIGU
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variety of ways. In air layering, a
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FIGURE 10-34 by using cormels. Prop
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Psuedobulbs In the Dendrobium orchi
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The technique is used widely in cro
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PART 4 GROWING PLANTS INDOORS CHAPT
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11 Growing Houseplants PURPOSE AND
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TABLE 11-1 Common houseplants Commo
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Saddle leaf Philodendron selloum To
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Window Displays Plants in windows e
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CONTAINER GARDENS DR. TERRI W. STAR
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annuals and hardy perennial species
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of the large container filled with
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perfection about four to six weeks
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FIGURE 11-6 Flowers displayed on th
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TABLE 11-5 Plant Selected Plants fo
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The lighting condition near these w
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Fluorescent Lights Fluorescent ligh
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may be used for one pot or a group
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garden rooms, atriums, or a large c
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The photoperiod affects when the ho
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patted firm to keep the plant erect
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Other Materials Apart from clay and
Page 404 and 405: (a) ( FIGURE 11-25 Support for plan
Page 406 and 407: TABLE 11-7 Common Problems of House
Page 408 and 409: • Keep soil moist all the time
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Page 412 and 413: amount and quality of light. If sup
Page 414 and 415: 12 Controlled-Environment Horticult
Page 416 and 417: 6. Curvilinear 7. Curved eave 8. Do
Page 418 and 419: Detached greenhouses have several a
Page 420 and 421: 12.2.3 FRAME DESIGN There are two b
Page 422 and 423: horticultural business a less-expen
Page 424 and 425: Texas, Hawaii, and California. The
Page 426 and 427: source of heat for times when the t
Page 428 and 429: FIGURE 12-17 Greenhouse production
Page 430 and 431: FIGURE 12-21 Moving tables allowing
Page 432 and 433: Research program on greenhouse engi
Page 434 and 435: greenhouses equipped with a variety
Page 436 and 437: FIGURE 1 Annual energy required per
Page 438 and 439: This system was demonstrated in a 5
Page 440 and 441: FIGURE 6 Amounts of waste energy ut
Page 442 and 443: Ekholt, B.A., D.R. Mears, M.S. Gini
Page 444 and 445: or object to be warmed. Failure to
Page 446 and 447: objects in its path (e.g., the floo
Page 448 and 449: FIGURE 12-27 Motorized ventilation
Page 450 and 451: FIGURE 12-30 Movable internal shade
Page 452 and 453: FIGURE 12-33 A high pressure sodium
Page 456 and 457: FIGURE 12-37 Overhead sprinkler irr
Page 458 and 459: Intermittent Feed Greenhouse plants
Page 460 and 461: However, in winter, greenhouse vent
Page 462 and 463: OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT 1. Explain the
Page 464 and 465: . Foliage or green plants. Foliage
Page 466 and 467: 2. Labor. The size of the labor for
Page 468 and 469: FIGURE 13-1 Greenhouse production o
Page 470 and 471: FIGURE 13-2 Lettuce plug is inserte
Page 472 and 473: 13.8.4 AGGREGATE HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS
Page 474 and 475: (a) (b) (c) FIGURE 13-6 Plug produc
Page 476 and 477: 14 Growing Succulents PURPOSE AND E
Page 478 and 479: FIGURE 14-3 Leaf succulent represen
Page 480 and 481: frost-hardy. Their rosettes are usu
Page 482 and 483: TABLE 14-1 Plant Selected Popular S
Page 484 and 485: (a) (b) FIGURE 14-12 Typical bromel
Page 486 and 487: 14.7.1 WHAT ARE CACTI? 14.7 CACTI C
Page 488 and 489: FIGURE 14-16 Opuntia. (Source: Crai
Page 490 and 491: FIGURE 14-23 Mammillaria. (Source:
Page 492 and 493: FIGURE 14-28 Both desert and jungle
Page 494 and 495: Growing mix Gravel Cacti (a) (b) FI
Page 496 and 497: PART5 GROWING PLANTS OUTDOORS: ORNA
Page 498 and 499: 15 Principles of Landscaping PURPOS
Page 500 and 501: 8. Create recreational grounds. Suc
Page 502 and 503: knowledge, with concern for resourc
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(a) (b) (c) FIGURE 15-2 The occurre
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GUIDELINES FOR LANDSCAPE DESIGN DAV
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the landscape. Some very successful
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Rhythm and Line Panoramic view of a
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FIGURE 15-10 A formal garden. The e
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How frequently do they entertain? A
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the patio should be located on the
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15.7.1 SELECTING PLANTS A homeowner
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Plant Arrangement in the Landscape
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Shadow FIGURE 15-15 Planting a tree
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SUMMARY Landscaping enhances the su
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3. Supply materials on a timely bas
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such as preparation rooms (for mixi
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of environmental fluctuations. Furt
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FIGURE 16-4 A bare-root tree seedli
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17 Installation of the Landscape PU
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for walks, driveways, and patios (F
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Planting may be limited to accentin
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17.3.3 PREPARING THE BED The soil s
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FIGURE 17-4 Bedding plants raised i
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SUMMARY Bedding plants are largely
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TABLE 17-6 Selected Ground Covers T
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TABLE 17-7 Selected Ornamental Gras
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they determine the success and surv
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12. Wildlife attraction. Trees in t
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pennsylvanica), hackberry (Celtis s
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y winds. A stake, which is often a
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TABLE 17-8 Selected Narrowleaf Ever
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TABLE 17-11 Selected Deciduous Shru
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Blooming bushes 1. Blue mist shrub
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Planting Bulblets and Bulbils Speci
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may be divided such that each secti
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FIGURE 18-1 (Source: George Acquaah
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Cool-Season (Temperate) Grasses In
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Growth Habit Turfgrasses are the mo
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Heavy Use Lawns on playgrounds and
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The seed should be free from weeds
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Source of Sod As with seed, sod sup
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A plug of sod FIGURE 18-7 Plugging
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way, plants are able to adapt to th
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form of a can placed on the lawn wi
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TABLE 18-3 Some Common Lawn and Tur
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even surface soil surface for layin
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MacCaskey, M. 1987. All about lawns
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Pruning is sometimes done in conjun
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4. Pruning may be done to reduce th
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19.4.2 SAWS A saw may be designed t
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defeat the purpose of pruning. The
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Bud withers as cut end dries back d
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19.6 STRATEGIES FOR PRUNING ABOVEGR
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Rejuvenation Pruning Cut canes to a
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3. In the third and subsequent year
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(a) Cut Prune (b) FIGURE 19-16 Step
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Eucalyptus and Paulownia are amenab
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TRAINING & PRUNING DECIDUOUS FRUIT
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Summer pruning eliminates an energy
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a) b) FIGURE 2 Newly planted apple
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FIGURE 6 Wooden limb spreaders can
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FIGURE 9. An apple tree trained to
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years to promote continued lateral
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Horizontal Espalier The horizontal
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19.16.1 CANE FRUITS Cane fruits are
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FIGURE 19-26 Shearing of Christmas
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pyramid-like form that is wider at
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After selecting the appropriate spe
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PART 6 GROWING PLANTS OUTDOORS: VEG
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20 Growing Vegetables Outdoors PURP
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The National Agricultural Statistic
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(This item omitted from WebBook edi
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growers should take to determine an
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pests and reduce/ eliminate hail da
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square yard (10 to 68 grams per squ
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High tunnels help increase the prof
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(This item omitted from WebBook edi
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20.4 VEGETABLE MARKET TYPES Fresh V
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Establishing the Crop Planting into
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home water supply from the tap. Thi
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Cole crop Cabbage Root Potato Bean
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6. Adequate nutrition. While overfe
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variable, ranging from creamy yello
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There are two general production pr
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This toxin is heat resistant and no
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large, or jumbo. The bulb may be sw
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REFERENCES Growing selected vegetab
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TABLE 21-1 Popular Herbs and Their
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) FIGURE 21-1
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22 Organic Farming PURPOSE AND EXPE
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22.3 PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC FARMING
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and the specific materials to be us
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22.8 MANAGING SOIL PHYSICAL QUALITY
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preemergent or early postemergent o
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Composting is a deliberate activity
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22.14.5 THE CARBON-TO-NITROGEN RATI
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Moisture Supply Water is required b
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Compost materials FIGURE 22-4 a wir
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As microbial decomposition proceeds
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Establishment and Management of an
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night, freezing can occur in spring
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accomplished by stratification. It
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transmitted by the dagger nematode
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PART 7 SPECIAL TECHNIQUES AND HANDL
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24 Cut Flowers and Floral Design PU
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to more than four-fold in standard
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Temperature and Humidity Wilting re
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FLORAL DESIGN: AN OVERVIEW BY WM. J
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Principle Definition Types (or Uses
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pH value-a measure of the acidity o
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FIGURE 6 Parallel Design-Parallel d
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24.3.2 TOOLS AND MATERIALS The tool
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3. Establish the focal point. 4. Ad
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Natural Drying To dry naturally, fl
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24.4.3 DRIED FLOWER ARRANGEMENTS Dr
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25 Terrarium Culture PURPOSE AND EX
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FIGURE 25-3 Terrarium containers ar
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FIGURE 25-5 Assortment of tools use
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25.6.7 ENHANCING THE DISPLAY Certai
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(a) (b) FIGURE 26-1 Bonsai can be c
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TABLE 26-3 Plant A Selection of Pop
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26.3.1 COLLECTING BONSAI PLANTS FRO
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Strip bark Bare branch FIGURE 26-9
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26.5.2 SANITATION It is critical to
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27 Postharvest Handling and Marketi
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whereas oranges are picked (they ha
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(b) (a) (c) (d) (e1) (e2) (f) FIGUR
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To reduce packaging injury, contain
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is replaced by the by-product of re
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Stored produce may lose some color,
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with pricing. When selling by volum
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(a) (b) FIGURE 27-5 Horticultural p
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APPENDIX A Temperature: Converting
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APPENDIX B Metric Conversion Chart
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APPENDIX D Common and Scientific Na
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Pecan (Carya illinoensis) Peony (Pa
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GLOSSARY A Abaxial Turned away from
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Cellulose A complex carbohydrate th
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Floriculture The science and practi
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M Macronutrient An essential elemen
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Root cap A mass of hard cells cover
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INDEX A-frame, 395 A-horizon, 108 A
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defined, 390 fertilization, 432-434
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Radiant heaters, 378 Radicle, 90 Re
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color plate 1 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) M
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color plate 3 (b) (a) (c) (d) (e) (
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color plate 5 (a) (b) (d) (c) (e) (
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color plate 7 (b) (c) (d) (a) (e) (
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color plate 9 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (
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color plate 11 (a) (c) (b) (d) Grow
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color plate 13 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
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color plate 21 (a) (b) (c) (e) (d)
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color plate 23 (c) (b) (a) (d) (e)
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color plate 25 (c) (a) (b) (d) (e)
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color plate 27 (a1) (a2) (b2) (b1)
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color plate 31 (a) (b) (c) Floral d
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Horticulture Principles and Practices

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