13.8.4 AGGREGATE HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS Under the substrate system, plant roots are surrounded by either inert or natural organic material. These substrates provide only limited physical support. They may be placed in bags, troughs, or trenches. A variety of inert and organic materials are placed into containers to provide physical supports for plants in culture. The common aggregate systems are as follows: Bag Culture Bag culture is the preferred method of greenhouse vegetable production by many producers in the United States. It is relatively easy to establish and manage. It entails growing plants in a soilless medium placed 2–5 gallon polyethylene bags that may be laid flat or stood upright in the greenhouse. The former layout can handle 2–3 plants per bag, while the upright bag is usually limited to one plant per beg. The media may be peat, rockwool, peat/vermiculite, or mixtures of various soilless mix ingredients. Plants may be grown in pots with slits at the bottom and pot inserted into the bag (Figure 13–4) Bag-cultured plants are fertilized and watered through drip irrigation systems. Vertical Towers These are similar to bag culture. Because the bags are stood on their shorter end, support wires or beams are usually needed to stabilize them in the greenhouse. A company, Verti- Gro, markets square Styrofoam pots that are stackable and reusable. The media types are variable as in the case of bag culture. Trough Culture Materials that may be used as substrates include sand, vermiculite, horticultural rockwool, and perlite. The critical factor in the choice of material is that it be able to hold moisture and yet drain adequately for good aeration. Systems that use these materials are generally referred to as sand cultures (or trough cultures). They are not widely used commercially since it is not easy to maintain a good balance for drainage, water retention, and aeration (Figure 13–5). Commonly used containers include those made of concrete for permanent troughs or beds. Other materials such as timber coated with asphalt or fiberglass may be used. The nutrient solution is applied by using perforated pipes with suitable jets in fixed irrigation models or directly to the soil surface. Sand beds are often sterilized annually to control soilborne diseases and pests. 13.8.5 ORGANIC SUBSTRATES Plants may be grown in organic substrates in various arrangements. As previously discussed, these substrates may also be used in bag or vertical tower culture. FIGURE 13–4 Greenhouse production of tomato in rockwool bags. The hot-water heating pipes located on the floors of the isles also serve as tracks for carts used for plant maintenance and harvesting. (Source: Dr. AJ Both, Bioresource Engineering, Department of Plant Biology and Pathology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901) Greenhouse Production 447
FIGURE 13–5 Greenhouse production of strawberry in troughs suspended from the greenhouse frame. (Source: Dr. AJ Both, Bioresource Engineering, Department of Plant Biology and Pathology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901) Straw Bale Culture Bales of straw are laid out in rows on the greenhouse floor. Prior to planting, the bales are wetted with “manure tea” (liquefied manure) to initiate decomposition and to generate heat in the bale. The wetting process requires about 7 gallons of liquid per 50-lb bale. When the bale cools down to below 110°F, it is topped with about 6 inches of compostbased potting mix. This layer is needed for the transplant. Fertilization is by topdressing with liquid of dry fertilizers. Straw culture is useful in greenhouses with bare ground so the products do not get in touch with the soil. Shallow Bed Culture This is also called thin layer culture. It consists of 1–3 inches of potting mix or compost laid on plastic sheet or some other barrier. This system has been for crops including lettuce, greens, and herbs. If needed, the medium may be heated by bottom heat systems. 13.8.6 PLUG PRODUCTION (TRANSPLANT PRODUCTION) Plug production is a method of large-scale nursery sexual and asexual propagation of plants. It lends itself to automation (Figure 13–6). Equipment types are becoming increasing more sophisticated. Plug production had advantages and disadvantages, including the following: Advantages • Relatively easy to operate • Amenable to automation for quick and large-scale produciton • Operation is able to monitor the operation for uniform germination • Special seed treatments (e.g., vernalization) are easy to provide • Time from transplanting to sale is reduced • It is cost effective Disadvantages • Initial equipment cost could be high, depending on the type • Employees require special training to use equipment 448 Chapter 13 Greenhouse Production Media A key to success to plug production is to find the best medium for the enterprise and consistently use it. It should be pasteurized. A common medium is 1:1 of sphagnum peat moss: vermiculite or perlite. Sand soil, or bark, are not recommended in the medium.
HORTICULTURE Principles and Practic
HORTICULTURE Principles and Practic
With love to Theresa, quarterback;
Brief Contents Preface xxi PART 1 T
Contents Preface xxi PART 1 THE UND
5.3 PLANT GROWTH PROCESSES 160 5.4
8.20 COMMON GREENHOUSE DISEASES 276
12.3 INTERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
PART 6 Summary 541 References and S
22.18 INDOOR COMPOSTING SYSTEMS 668
Preface Horticulture is the area of
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am very grateful
PART 1 THE UNDERLYING SCIENCE CHAPT
1 What Is Horticulture? PURPOSE AND
(a) (c) (b) (d) FIGURE 1-1 The many
FIGURE 1 Bridge. The plaza view of
CYCADS Many people mistake these pr
FIGURE 2 The world's largest unbran
FIGURE 2 Sold flowers are loaded on
FIGURE 1-4 Formal landscaping featu
1.4 ROLEOFTHENURSERY AND SEED INDUS
1.5 HORTICULTURE AND SOCIETY Hortic
TABLE 1-3 U.S. Horticultural Export
Turfgrass Operation 1. Landscape te
What Is Horticulture? This site pro
Examples of botanical gardens http:
2 Classifying and Naming Horticultu
Eight major taxa are commonly used
TABLE 2-3 The Divisions of the King
HISTORY OF PLANT TAXONOMY PAUL R. F
AGE OF HERBALISTS Two major events
possible system of nomenclature. Ho
TABLE 1 Type Categories for Plant N
2.3 OTHER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS (O
2. Shrubs. A shrub has no main trun
Simple Fruits Fleshy Fruits Drupe B
FIGURE 2-14 A pome, represented by
2.3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES
(a) (b) FIGURE 2-22 (Source: George
FIGURE 2-25 A narrowleaf plant. (So
FIGURE 2-29 Parts of a typical gras
such as rosemary, sage, thyme, marj
c. Leaves d. Bulbs 2. Cut across (t
Whole plant Organs FIGURE 3-1 Level
ibonucleic acid (RNA), proteins, an
called cristae; this extreme foldin
By virtue of its position, the prim
Phloem Tissue Structurally, phloem
(a) Stalk (b) Culm FIGURE 3-5 Cross
Scale Compressed stem (a) Whole bul
Upper epidermis Palisade layer FIGU
usually occur in xerophytes. In cer
FIGURE 3-22 Selected common leaf ma
FIGURE 3-25 Selected common leaf ti
absorption of water and minerals fr
Outer bark Inner bark FIGURE 3-37 T
Anther Filament Stamen FIGURE 3-41
Exocarp Parts of a typi- FIGURE 3-4
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE LABORATORY 1.
4.1 CLIMATE, WEATHER, AND HORTICULT
concentration in the atmosphere.A c
TABLE 4-1 Climatic Adaptation of Se
and upward. Another important gener
Rate of photosynthesis mg/sq. dm/hr
and plants that flower under only c
times of the year. Growers start th
content. This section is sometimes
TABLE 4-7 Soil Mineral Nutrients Es
Micronutrients (Trace Elements) Mic
Neutral FIGURE 4-11 A representatio
4.4 FERTILIZERS Fertilizer sources
One of the most commonly used contr
Chlorosis (the yellowing of green l
Fertilizers may be applied before p
It is neither practical nor safe to
Solution: How much of ammonium nitr
1°C (34°F), the optimum temperatu
Cellulose sponge Perched water tabl
Overhead Sprinkler Irrigation Water
FIGURE 4-19 Furrow irrigation of le
can self-install an underground irr
1. Surface drainage. Surface draina
Secondary Tillage Primary tillage i
(a) (b) (c) (d) FIGURE 4-20 (Source
texture. The most commonly used gra
TABLE 4-11 Selected Standard Mixes
Steam Pasteurization Steam pasteuri
Maracher, H. 1986. Mineral nutritio
5 Plant Physiology PURPOSE AND EXPE
Growth in an organism follows a cer
5.1.2 THE ROLE OF SIGNALS IN GROWTH
waxes are embedded. Waxes consist o
5.3.1 PHOTOSYNTHESIS Photosynthesis
CO 2 FIGURE 5-6 The C 4 pathway of
Growth and Development The general
TABLE 5-2 Energy Produced from Aero
Certain plants are adapted to dry e
conditions exist to sustain growth
Shoot Elongation In certain plants,
for success, since high temperature
FIGURE 5-13 Ripening of plantain sh
Terminal bud removed Unbranched pla
conditions—pertaining to light, m
them to maturity. The major process
6 Breeding Horticultural Plants PUR
Similarly, there can be no plant br
APPLICATION, CHALLENGES, AND PROSPE
hit with target DNA. Therefore, it
Generally, within ten days of exper
Aziz A.N., Sauve R.J., Zhou S., 200
(b) F 1 Rr Rr round round F 2 RR R
e.g., Aa × Aa), the lethal allele
eeder’s equation. Simply stated,
Before the seed or product becomes
6.18.2 THE GENERAL STEPS OF RDNA TE
2. Political disagreement. There ar
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING Ac
PART 2 PROTECTING HORTICULTURAL PLA
7 Biological Enemies of Horticultur
8. Weeds may clog drains, waterways
is also a root parasite that obtain
LEGISLATIVE Both state and federal
Example Integrated cultural, physic
7.4.2 IMPORTANT INSECT ORDERS Insec
Egg FIGURE 7-3 Life cycle of an ins
sucking insects (also found with so
FIGURE 7-12 Corn earworm damage. (S
TABLE 7-1 Selected Fungal Diseases
7.6.1 SMALL ANIMALS Rabbits, mice,
FIGURE 7-16 The disease triangle. P
fungitoxic exudates in its leaves,
SUMMARY Insects are a major class o
For the home growers or those who c
for consumers and the environment).
TABLE 8-1 Strategy 4: Strategies an
gibberellic acid spray overcomes st
In a competitive industry, a variet
Chemicals gain access to humans thr
2. Pesticide management. Controllin
Every organism has its natural enem
TABLE 8-3 Selected Examples of Biol
1 2 YEAR 3 4 FIGURE 8-5 cycle. A cr
6. Heat treatment. In the greenhous
Organic Compounds (Organics) Organi
under enclosed conditions (e.g., wa
FIGURE 8-9 A tractor-mounted spraye
8.11.9 LANDSCAPE PESTS AND THEIR CO
application, a particular herbicide
Further, they do not provide unifor
SUMMARY Herbicides are chemicals us
Sulfur may be applied for both prev
8.23 PREVENTING GREENHOUSE DISEASES
PART 3 PROPAGATING HORTICULTURAL PL
9 Sexual Propagation PURPOSE AND EX
Anther Microspore Megaspore mother
Lettuce seeds Red light Darkness Fa
FEDERAL AND STATE SEED LAWS Federal
Germination Test In laboratory prac
FIGURE 15 The essential structures
processing into flour or meal). How
physiologically immature seeds must
seeds may be treated in this way be
The two basic modes of seedling eme
locations in the field. Home garden
FIGURE 9-9 A plastic flat. (Source:
(a) (b) FIGURE 9-12 (a) Sowing seed
y the gardener or grower. Whatever
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING Co
species enables vegetative propagat
for rapid rooting. There are two ba
Cutting involving one node (e.g., s
This practice is especially importa
10.6.4 STICKING THE CUTTING Cutting
(a) Indexing by budding Diseased pl
10.11 M ETHODS OF GRAFTING Grafting
Scion Wax FIGURE 10-17 Steps in bar
MODULE 3 BUDDING 10.12 TYPES OF BUD
MODULE 4 LAYERING 10.13 TYPES OF LA
Buried part of shoot is nicked FIGU
variety of ways. In air layering, a
FIGURE 10-34 by using cormels. Prop
Psuedobulbs In the Dendrobium orchi
The technique is used widely in cro
PART 4 GROWING PLANTS INDOORS CHAPT
11 Growing Houseplants PURPOSE AND
TABLE 11-1 Common houseplants Commo
Saddle leaf Philodendron selloum To
Window Displays Plants in windows e
CONTAINER GARDENS DR. TERRI W. STAR
annuals and hardy perennial species
of the large container filled with
perfection about four to six weeks
FIGURE 11-6 Flowers displayed on th
TABLE 11-5 Plant Selected Plants fo
The lighting condition near these w
Fluorescent Lights Fluorescent ligh
may be used for one pot or a group
garden rooms, atriums, or a large c
The photoperiod affects when the ho
patted firm to keep the plant erect
Other Materials Apart from clay and
(a) ( FIGURE 11-25 Support for plan
TABLE 11-7 Common Problems of House
• Keep soil moist all the time
• Prefers high temperatures • P
amount and quality of light. If sup
12 Controlled-Environment Horticult
6. Curvilinear 7. Curved eave 8. Do
Detached greenhouses have several a
12.2.3 FRAME DESIGN There are two b
Shadow FIGURE 15-15 Planting a tree
SUMMARY Landscaping enhances the su
3. Supply materials on a timely bas
such as preparation rooms (for mixi
of environmental fluctuations. Furt
FIGURE 16-4 A bare-root tree seedli
17 Installation of the Landscape PU
for walks, driveways, and patios (F
Planting may be limited to accentin
17.3.3 PREPARING THE BED The soil s
FIGURE 17-4 Bedding plants raised i
SUMMARY Bedding plants are largely
TABLE 17-6 Selected Ground Covers T
TABLE 17-7 Selected Ornamental Gras
they determine the success and surv
12. Wildlife attraction. Trees in t
pennsylvanica), hackberry (Celtis s
y winds. A stake, which is often a
TABLE 17-8 Selected Narrowleaf Ever
TABLE 17-11 Selected Deciduous Shru
Blooming bushes 1. Blue mist shrub
Planting Bulblets and Bulbils Speci
may be divided such that each secti
FIGURE 18-1 (Source: George Acquaah
Cool-Season (Temperate) Grasses In
Growth Habit Turfgrasses are the mo
Heavy Use Lawns on playgrounds and
The seed should be free from weeds
Source of Sod As with seed, sod sup
A plug of sod FIGURE 18-7 Plugging
way, plants are able to adapt to th
form of a can placed on the lawn wi
TABLE 18-3 Some Common Lawn and Tur
even surface soil surface for layin
MacCaskey, M. 1987. All about lawns
Pruning is sometimes done in conjun
4. Pruning may be done to reduce th
19.4.2 SAWS A saw may be designed t
defeat the purpose of pruning. The
Bud withers as cut end dries back d
19.6 STRATEGIES FOR PRUNING ABOVEGR
Rejuvenation Pruning Cut canes to a
3. In the third and subsequent year
(a) Cut Prune (b) FIGURE 19-16 Step
Eucalyptus and Paulownia are amenab
TRAINING & PRUNING DECIDUOUS FRUIT
Summer pruning eliminates an energy
a) b) FIGURE 2 Newly planted apple
FIGURE 6 Wooden limb spreaders can
FIGURE 9. An apple tree trained to
years to promote continued lateral
Horizontal Espalier The horizontal
19.16.1 CANE FRUITS Cane fruits are
FIGURE 19-26 Shearing of Christmas
pyramid-like form that is wider at
After selecting the appropriate spe
PART 6 GROWING PLANTS OUTDOORS: VEG
20 Growing Vegetables Outdoors PURP
The National Agricultural Statistic
(This item omitted from WebBook edi
growers should take to determine an
pests and reduce/ eliminate hail da
square yard (10 to 68 grams per squ
High tunnels help increase the prof
(This item omitted from WebBook edi
20.4 VEGETABLE MARKET TYPES Fresh V
Establishing the Crop Planting into
home water supply from the tap. Thi
Cole crop Cabbage Root Potato Bean
6. Adequate nutrition. While overfe
variable, ranging from creamy yello
There are two general production pr
This toxin is heat resistant and no
large, or jumbo. The bulb may be sw
REFERENCES Growing selected vegetab
TABLE 21-1 Popular Herbs and Their
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) FIGURE 21-1
22 Organic Farming PURPOSE AND EXPE
22.3 PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC FARMING
and the specific materials to be us
22.8 MANAGING SOIL PHYSICAL QUALITY
preemergent or early postemergent o
Composting is a deliberate activity
22.14.5 THE CARBON-TO-NITROGEN RATI
Moisture Supply Water is required b
Compost materials FIGURE 22-4 a wir
As microbial decomposition proceeds
Establishment and Management of an
night, freezing can occur in spring
accomplished by stratification. It
transmitted by the dagger nematode
PART 7 SPECIAL TECHNIQUES AND HANDL
24 Cut Flowers and Floral Design PU
to more than four-fold in standard
Temperature and Humidity Wilting re
FLORAL DESIGN: AN OVERVIEW BY WM. J
Principle Definition Types (or Uses
pH value-a measure of the acidity o
FIGURE 6 Parallel Design-Parallel d
24.3.2 TOOLS AND MATERIALS The tool
3. Establish the focal point. 4. Ad
Natural Drying To dry naturally, fl
24.4.3 DRIED FLOWER ARRANGEMENTS Dr
25 Terrarium Culture PURPOSE AND EX
FIGURE 25-3 Terrarium containers ar
FIGURE 25-5 Assortment of tools use
25.6.7 ENHANCING THE DISPLAY Certai
(a) (b) FIGURE 26-1 Bonsai can be c
TABLE 26-3 Plant A Selection of Pop
26.3.1 COLLECTING BONSAI PLANTS FRO
Strip bark Bare branch FIGURE 26-9
26.5.2 SANITATION It is critical to
27 Postharvest Handling and Marketi
whereas oranges are picked (they ha
(b) (a) (c) (d) (e1) (e2) (f) FIGUR
To reduce packaging injury, contain
is replaced by the by-product of re
Stored produce may lose some color,
with pricing. When selling by volum
(a) (b) FIGURE 27-5 Horticultural p
APPENDIX A Temperature: Converting
APPENDIX B Metric Conversion Chart
APPENDIX D Common and Scientific Na
Pecan (Carya illinoensis) Peony (Pa
GLOSSARY A Abaxial Turned away from
Cellulose A complex carbohydrate th
Floriculture The science and practi
M Macronutrient An essential elemen
Root cap A mass of hard cells cover
INDEX A-frame, 395 A-horizon, 108 A
defined, 390 fertilization, 432-434
Radiant heaters, 378 Radicle, 90 Re
color plate 1 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) M
color plate 3 (b) (a) (c) (d) (e) (
color plate 5 (a) (b) (d) (c) (e) (
color plate 7 (b) (c) (d) (a) (e) (
color plate 9 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (
color plate 11 (a) (c) (b) (d) Grow
color plate 13 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
color plate 15 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
color plate 17 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
color plate 19 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
color plate 21 (a) (b) (c) (e) (d)
color plate 23 (c) (b) (a) (d) (e)
color plate 25 (c) (a) (b) (d) (e)
color plate 27 (a1) (a2) (b2) (b1)
color plate 29 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
color plate 31 (a) (b) (c) Floral d
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