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Horticulture Principles and Practices

13.8.4 AGGREGATE

13.8.4 AGGREGATE HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS Under the substrate system, plant roots are surrounded by either inert or natural organic material. These substrates provide only limited physical support. They may be placed in bags, troughs, or trenches. A variety of inert and organic materials are placed into containers to provide physical supports for plants in culture. The common aggregate systems are as follows: Bag Culture Bag culture is the preferred method of greenhouse vegetable production by many producers in the United States. It is relatively easy to establish and manage. It entails growing plants in a soilless medium placed 2–5 gallon polyethylene bags that may be laid flat or stood upright in the greenhouse. The former layout can handle 2–3 plants per bag, while the upright bag is usually limited to one plant per beg. The media may be peat, rockwool, peat/vermiculite, or mixtures of various soilless mix ingredients. Plants may be grown in pots with slits at the bottom and pot inserted into the bag (Figure 13–4) Bag-cultured plants are fertilized and watered through drip irrigation systems. Vertical Towers These are similar to bag culture. Because the bags are stood on their shorter end, support wires or beams are usually needed to stabilize them in the greenhouse. A company, Verti- Gro, markets square Styrofoam pots that are stackable and reusable. The media types are variable as in the case of bag culture. Trough Culture Materials that may be used as substrates include sand, vermiculite, horticultural rockwool, and perlite. The critical factor in the choice of material is that it be able to hold moisture and yet drain adequately for good aeration. Systems that use these materials are generally referred to as sand cultures (or trough cultures). They are not widely used commercially since it is not easy to maintain a good balance for drainage, water retention, and aeration (Figure 13–5). Commonly used containers include those made of concrete for permanent troughs or beds. Other materials such as timber coated with asphalt or fiberglass may be used. The nutrient solution is applied by using perforated pipes with suitable jets in fixed irrigation models or directly to the soil surface. Sand beds are often sterilized annually to control soilborne diseases and pests. 13.8.5 ORGANIC SUBSTRATES Plants may be grown in organic substrates in various arrangements. As previously discussed, these substrates may also be used in bag or vertical tower culture. FIGURE 13–4 Greenhouse production of tomato in rockwool bags. The hot-water heating pipes located on the floors of the isles also serve as tracks for carts used for plant maintenance and harvesting. (Source: Dr. AJ Both, Bioresource Engineering, Department of Plant Biology and Pathology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901) Greenhouse Production 447

FIGURE 13–5 Greenhouse production of strawberry in troughs suspended from the greenhouse frame. (Source: Dr. AJ Both, Bioresource Engineering, Department of Plant Biology and Pathology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901) Straw Bale Culture Bales of straw are laid out in rows on the greenhouse floor. Prior to planting, the bales are wetted with “manure tea” (liquefied manure) to initiate decomposition and to generate heat in the bale. The wetting process requires about 7 gallons of liquid per 50-lb bale. When the bale cools down to below 110°F, it is topped with about 6 inches of compostbased potting mix. This layer is needed for the transplant. Fertilization is by topdressing with liquid of dry fertilizers. Straw culture is useful in greenhouses with bare ground so the products do not get in touch with the soil. Shallow Bed Culture This is also called thin layer culture. It consists of 1–3 inches of potting mix or compost laid on plastic sheet or some other barrier. This system has been for crops including lettuce, greens, and herbs. If needed, the medium may be heated by bottom heat systems. 13.8.6 PLUG PRODUCTION (TRANSPLANT PRODUCTION) Plug production is a method of large-scale nursery sexual and asexual propagation of plants. It lends itself to automation (Figure 13–6). Equipment types are becoming increasing more sophisticated. Plug production had advantages and disadvantages, including the following: Advantages • Relatively easy to operate • Amenable to automation for quick and large-scale produciton • Operation is able to monitor the operation for uniform germination • Special seed treatments (e.g., vernalization) are easy to provide • Time from transplanting to sale is reduced • It is cost effective Disadvantages • Initial equipment cost could be high, depending on the type • Employees require special training to use equipment 448 Chapter 13 Greenhouse Production Media A key to success to plug production is to find the best medium for the enterprise and consistently use it. It should be pasteurized. A common medium is 1:1 of sphagnum peat moss: vermiculite or perlite. Sand soil, or bark, are not recommended in the medium.

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    HORTICULTURE Principles and Practic

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    HORTICULTURE Principles and Practic

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    With love to Theresa, quarterback;

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    Brief Contents Preface xxi PART 1 T

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    Contents Preface xxi PART 1 THE UND

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    5.3 PLANT GROWTH PROCESSES 160 5.4

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    8.20 COMMON GREENHOUSE DISEASES 276

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    12.3 INTERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL

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    PART 6 Summary 541 References and S

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    22.18 INDOOR COMPOSTING SYSTEMS 668

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    Preface Horticulture is the area of

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    ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am very grateful

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    PART 1 THE UNDERLYING SCIENCE CHAPT

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    1 What Is Horticulture? PURPOSE AND

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    (a) (c) (b) (d) FIGURE 1-1 The many

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    FIGURE 1 Bridge. The plaza view of

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    CYCADS Many people mistake these pr

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    FIGURE 2 The world's largest unbran

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    FIGURE 2 Sold flowers are loaded on

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    FIGURE 1-4 Formal landscaping featu

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    1.4 ROLEOFTHENURSERY AND SEED INDUS

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    1.5 HORTICULTURE AND SOCIETY Hortic

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    TABLE 1-3 U.S. Horticultural Export

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    Turfgrass Operation 1. Landscape te

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    What Is Horticulture? This site pro

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    Examples of botanical gardens http:

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    2 Classifying and Naming Horticultu

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    Eight major taxa are commonly used

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    TABLE 2-3 The Divisions of the King

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    HISTORY OF PLANT TAXONOMY PAUL R. F

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    AGE OF HERBALISTS Two major events

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    possible system of nomenclature. Ho

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    TABLE 1 Type Categories for Plant N

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    2.3 OTHER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS (O

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    2. Shrubs. A shrub has no main trun

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    Simple Fruits Fleshy Fruits Drupe B

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    FIGURE 2-14 A pome, represented by

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    2.3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES

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    (a) (b) FIGURE 2-22 (Source: George

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    FIGURE 2-25 A narrowleaf plant. (So

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    FIGURE 2-29 Parts of a typical gras

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    such as rosemary, sage, thyme, marj

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    c. Leaves d. Bulbs 2. Cut across (t

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    Whole plant Organs FIGURE 3-1 Level

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    ibonucleic acid (RNA), proteins, an

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    called cristae; this extreme foldin

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    By virtue of its position, the prim

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    Phloem Tissue Structurally, phloem

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    (a) Stalk (b) Culm FIGURE 3-5 Cross

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    Scale Compressed stem (a) Whole bul

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    Upper epidermis Palisade layer FIGU

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    usually occur in xerophytes. In cer

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    FIGURE 3-22 Selected common leaf ma

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    FIGURE 3-25 Selected common leaf ti

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    absorption of water and minerals fr

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    Outer bark Inner bark FIGURE 3-37 T

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    Anther Filament Stamen FIGURE 3-41

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    Exocarp Parts of a typi- FIGURE 3-4

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    PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE LABORATORY 1.

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    4.1 CLIMATE, WEATHER, AND HORTICULT

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    concentration in the atmosphere.A c

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    TABLE 4-1 Climatic Adaptation of Se

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    and upward. Another important gener

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    Rate of photosynthesis mg/sq. dm/hr

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    and plants that flower under only c

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    times of the year. Growers start th

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    content. This section is sometimes

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    TABLE 4-7 Soil Mineral Nutrients Es

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    Micronutrients (Trace Elements) Mic

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    Neutral FIGURE 4-11 A representatio

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    4.4 FERTILIZERS Fertilizer sources

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    One of the most commonly used contr

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    Chlorosis (the yellowing of green l

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    Fertilizers may be applied before p

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    It is neither practical nor safe to

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    Solution: How much of ammonium nitr

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    1°C (34°F), the optimum temperatu

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    Cellulose sponge Perched water tabl

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    Overhead Sprinkler Irrigation Water

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    FIGURE 4-19 Furrow irrigation of le

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    can self-install an underground irr

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    1. Surface drainage. Surface draina

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    Secondary Tillage Primary tillage i

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    (a) (b) (c) (d) FIGURE 4-20 (Source

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    texture. The most commonly used gra

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    TABLE 4-11 Selected Standard Mixes

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    Steam Pasteurization Steam pasteuri

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    Maracher, H. 1986. Mineral nutritio

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    5 Plant Physiology PURPOSE AND EXPE

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    Growth in an organism follows a cer

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    5.1.2 THE ROLE OF SIGNALS IN GROWTH

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    waxes are embedded. Waxes consist o

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    5.3.1 PHOTOSYNTHESIS Photosynthesis

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    CO 2 FIGURE 5-6 The C 4 pathway of

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    Growth and Development The general

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    TABLE 5-2 Energy Produced from Aero

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    Certain plants are adapted to dry e

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    conditions exist to sustain growth

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    Shoot Elongation In certain plants,

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    for success, since high temperature

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    FIGURE 5-13 Ripening of plantain sh

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    Terminal bud removed Unbranched pla

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    conditions—pertaining to light, m

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    them to maturity. The major process

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    6 Breeding Horticultural Plants PUR

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    Similarly, there can be no plant br

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    APPLICATION, CHALLENGES, AND PROSPE

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    hit with target DNA. Therefore, it

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    Generally, within ten days of exper

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    Aziz A.N., Sauve R.J., Zhou S., 200

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    (b) F 1 Rr Rr round round F 2 RR R

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    e.g., Aa × Aa), the lethal allele

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    eeder’s equation. Simply stated,

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    Before the seed or product becomes

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    6.18.2 THE GENERAL STEPS OF RDNA TE

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    2. Political disagreement. There ar

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    REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING Ac

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    PART 2 PROTECTING HORTICULTURAL PLA

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    7 Biological Enemies of Horticultur

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    8. Weeds may clog drains, waterways

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    is also a root parasite that obtain

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    LEGISLATIVE Both state and federal

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    Example Integrated cultural, physic

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    7.4.2 IMPORTANT INSECT ORDERS Insec

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    Egg FIGURE 7-3 Life cycle of an ins

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    sucking insects (also found with so

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    FIGURE 7-12 Corn earworm damage. (S

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    TABLE 7-1 Selected Fungal Diseases

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    7.6.1 SMALL ANIMALS Rabbits, mice,

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    FIGURE 7-16 The disease triangle. P

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    fungitoxic exudates in its leaves,

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    SUMMARY Insects are a major class o

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    For the home growers or those who c

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    for consumers and the environment).

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    TABLE 8-1 Strategy 4: Strategies an

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    gibberellic acid spray overcomes st

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    In a competitive industry, a variet

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    Chemicals gain access to humans thr

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    2. Pesticide management. Controllin

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    Every organism has its natural enem

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    TABLE 8-3 Selected Examples of Biol

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    1 2 YEAR 3 4 FIGURE 8-5 cycle. A cr

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    6. Heat treatment. In the greenhous

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    Organic Compounds (Organics) Organi

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    under enclosed conditions (e.g., wa

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    FIGURE 8-9 A tractor-mounted spraye

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    8.11.9 LANDSCAPE PESTS AND THEIR CO

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    application, a particular herbicide

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    Further, they do not provide unifor

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    SUMMARY Herbicides are chemicals us

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    Sulfur may be applied for both prev

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    8.23 PREVENTING GREENHOUSE DISEASES

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    PART 3 PROPAGATING HORTICULTURAL PL

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    9 Sexual Propagation PURPOSE AND EX

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    Anther Microspore Megaspore mother

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    Lettuce seeds Red light Darkness Fa

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    FEDERAL AND STATE SEED LAWS Federal

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    Germination Test In laboratory prac

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    FIGURE 15 The essential structures

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    processing into flour or meal). How

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    physiologically immature seeds must

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    seeds may be treated in this way be

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    The two basic modes of seedling eme

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    locations in the field. Home garden

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    FIGURE 9-9 A plastic flat. (Source:

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    (a) (b) FIGURE 9-12 (a) Sowing seed

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    y the gardener or grower. Whatever

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    REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING Co

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    species enables vegetative propagat

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    for rapid rooting. There are two ba

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    Cutting involving one node (e.g., s

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    This practice is especially importa

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    10.6.4 STICKING THE CUTTING Cutting

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    (a) Indexing by budding Diseased pl

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    10.11 M ETHODS OF GRAFTING Grafting

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    Scion Wax FIGURE 10-17 Steps in bar

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    MODULE 3 BUDDING 10.12 TYPES OF BUD

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    MODULE 4 LAYERING 10.13 TYPES OF LA

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    Buried part of shoot is nicked FIGU

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    variety of ways. In air layering, a

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    FIGURE 10-34 by using cormels. Prop

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    Psuedobulbs In the Dendrobium orchi

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    The technique is used widely in cro

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    PART 4 GROWING PLANTS INDOORS CHAPT

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    11 Growing Houseplants PURPOSE AND

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    TABLE 11-1 Common houseplants Commo

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    Saddle leaf Philodendron selloum To

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    Window Displays Plants in windows e

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    CONTAINER GARDENS DR. TERRI W. STAR

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    annuals and hardy perennial species

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    of the large container filled with

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    perfection about four to six weeks

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    FIGURE 11-6 Flowers displayed on th

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    TABLE 11-5 Plant Selected Plants fo

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    The lighting condition near these w

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    Fluorescent Lights Fluorescent ligh

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    may be used for one pot or a group

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    garden rooms, atriums, or a large c

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    The photoperiod affects when the ho

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    patted firm to keep the plant erect

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    Other Materials Apart from clay and

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    (a) ( FIGURE 11-25 Support for plan

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    TABLE 11-7 Common Problems of House

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    • Keep soil moist all the time

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    • Prefers high temperatures • P

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    amount and quality of light. If sup

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    12 Controlled-Environment Horticult

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    6. Curvilinear 7. Curved eave 8. Do

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    Detached greenhouses have several a

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    12.2.3 FRAME DESIGN There are two b

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  • Page 428 and 429: FIGURE 12-17 Greenhouse production
  • Page 430 and 431: FIGURE 12-21 Moving tables allowing
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  • Page 434 and 435: greenhouses equipped with a variety
  • Page 436 and 437: FIGURE 1 Annual energy required per
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  • Page 440 and 441: FIGURE 6 Amounts of waste energy ut
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  • Page 444 and 445: or object to be warmed. Failure to
  • Page 446 and 447: objects in its path (e.g., the floo
  • Page 448 and 449: FIGURE 12-27 Motorized ventilation
  • Page 450 and 451: FIGURE 12-30 Movable internal shade
  • Page 452 and 453: FIGURE 12-33 A high pressure sodium
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  • Page 456 and 457: FIGURE 12-37 Overhead sprinkler irr
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  • Page 462 and 463: OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT 1. Explain the
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  • Page 468 and 469: FIGURE 13-1 Greenhouse production o
  • Page 470 and 471: FIGURE 13-2 Lettuce plug is inserte
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  • Page 476 and 477: 14 Growing Succulents PURPOSE AND E
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  • Page 480 and 481: frost-hardy. Their rosettes are usu
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  • Page 484 and 485: (a) (b) FIGURE 14-12 Typical bromel
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  • Page 488 and 489: FIGURE 14-16 Opuntia. (Source: Crai
  • Page 490 and 491: FIGURE 14-23 Mammillaria. (Source:
  • Page 492 and 493: FIGURE 14-28 Both desert and jungle
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  • Page 496 and 497: PART5 GROWING PLANTS OUTDOORS: ORNA
  • Page 498 and 499: 15 Principles of Landscaping PURPOS
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  • Page 512 and 513: FIGURE 15-10 A formal garden. The e
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  • Page 518 and 519: 15.7.1 SELECTING PLANTS A homeowner
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    Shadow FIGURE 15-15 Planting a tree

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    SUMMARY Landscaping enhances the su

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    3. Supply materials on a timely bas

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    such as preparation rooms (for mixi

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    of environmental fluctuations. Furt

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    FIGURE 16-4 A bare-root tree seedli

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    17 Installation of the Landscape PU

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    for walks, driveways, and patios (F

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    Planting may be limited to accentin

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    17.3.3 PREPARING THE BED The soil s

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    FIGURE 17-4 Bedding plants raised i

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    SUMMARY Bedding plants are largely

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    TABLE 17-6 Selected Ground Covers T

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    TABLE 17-7 Selected Ornamental Gras

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    they determine the success and surv

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    12. Wildlife attraction. Trees in t

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    pennsylvanica), hackberry (Celtis s

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    y winds. A stake, which is often a

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    TABLE 17-8 Selected Narrowleaf Ever

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    TABLE 17-11 Selected Deciduous Shru

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    Blooming bushes 1. Blue mist shrub

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    Planting Bulblets and Bulbils Speci

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    may be divided such that each secti

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    FIGURE 18-1 (Source: George Acquaah

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    Cool-Season (Temperate) Grasses In

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    Growth Habit Turfgrasses are the mo

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    Heavy Use Lawns on playgrounds and

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    The seed should be free from weeds

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    Source of Sod As with seed, sod sup

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    A plug of sod FIGURE 18-7 Plugging

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    way, plants are able to adapt to th

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    form of a can placed on the lawn wi

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    TABLE 18-3 Some Common Lawn and Tur

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    even surface soil surface for layin

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    MacCaskey, M. 1987. All about lawns

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    Pruning is sometimes done in conjun

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    4. Pruning may be done to reduce th

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    19.4.2 SAWS A saw may be designed t

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    defeat the purpose of pruning. The

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    Bud withers as cut end dries back d

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    19.6 STRATEGIES FOR PRUNING ABOVEGR

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    Rejuvenation Pruning Cut canes to a

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    3. In the third and subsequent year

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    (a) Cut Prune (b) FIGURE 19-16 Step

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    Eucalyptus and Paulownia are amenab

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    TRAINING & PRUNING DECIDUOUS FRUIT

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    Summer pruning eliminates an energy

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    a) b) FIGURE 2 Newly planted apple

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    FIGURE 6 Wooden limb spreaders can

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    FIGURE 9. An apple tree trained to

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    years to promote continued lateral

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    Horizontal Espalier The horizontal

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    19.16.1 CANE FRUITS Cane fruits are

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    FIGURE 19-26 Shearing of Christmas

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    pyramid-like form that is wider at

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    After selecting the appropriate spe

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    PART 6 GROWING PLANTS OUTDOORS: VEG

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    20 Growing Vegetables Outdoors PURP

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    The National Agricultural Statistic

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    (This item omitted from WebBook edi

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    growers should take to determine an

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    pests and reduce/ eliminate hail da

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    square yard (10 to 68 grams per squ

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    High tunnels help increase the prof

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    (This item omitted from WebBook edi

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    20.4 VEGETABLE MARKET TYPES Fresh V

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    Establishing the Crop Planting into

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    home water supply from the tap. Thi

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    Cole crop Cabbage Root Potato Bean

  • Page 660 and 661:

    6. Adequate nutrition. While overfe

  • Page 662 and 663:

    variable, ranging from creamy yello

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    There are two general production pr

  • Page 666 and 667:

    This toxin is heat resistant and no

  • Page 668 and 669:

    large, or jumbo. The bulb may be sw

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    REFERENCES Growing selected vegetab

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    TABLE 21-1 Popular Herbs and Their

  • Page 674 and 675:

    (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) FIGURE 21-1

  • Page 676 and 677:

    22 Organic Farming PURPOSE AND EXPE

  • Page 678 and 679:

    22.3 PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC FARMING

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    and the specific materials to be us

  • Page 682 and 683:

    22.8 MANAGING SOIL PHYSICAL QUALITY

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    preemergent or early postemergent o

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    Composting is a deliberate activity

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    22.14.5 THE CARBON-TO-NITROGEN RATI

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    Moisture Supply Water is required b

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    Compost materials FIGURE 22-4 a wir

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    As microbial decomposition proceeds

  • Page 696 and 697:

    Establishment and Management of an

  • Page 698 and 699:

    night, freezing can occur in spring

  • Page 700 and 701:

    accomplished by stratification. It

  • Page 702 and 703:

    transmitted by the dagger nematode

  • Page 704 and 705:

    PART 7 SPECIAL TECHNIQUES AND HANDL

  • Page 706 and 707:

    24 Cut Flowers and Floral Design PU

  • Page 708 and 709:

    to more than four-fold in standard

  • Page 710 and 711:

    Temperature and Humidity Wilting re

  • Page 712 and 713:

    FLORAL DESIGN: AN OVERVIEW BY WM. J

  • Page 714 and 715:

    Principle Definition Types (or Uses

  • Page 716 and 717:

    pH value-a measure of the acidity o

  • Page 718 and 719:

    FIGURE 6 Parallel Design-Parallel d

  • Page 720 and 721:

    24.3.2 TOOLS AND MATERIALS The tool

  • Page 722 and 723:

    3. Establish the focal point. 4. Ad

  • Page 724 and 725:

    Natural Drying To dry naturally, fl

  • Page 726 and 727:

    24.4.3 DRIED FLOWER ARRANGEMENTS Dr

  • Page 728 and 729:

    25 Terrarium Culture PURPOSE AND EX

  • Page 730 and 731:

    FIGURE 25-3 Terrarium containers ar

  • Page 732 and 733:

    FIGURE 25-5 Assortment of tools use

  • Page 734 and 735:

    25.6.7 ENHANCING THE DISPLAY Certai

  • Page 736 and 737:

    (a) (b) FIGURE 26-1 Bonsai can be c

  • Page 738 and 739:

    TABLE 26-3 Plant A Selection of Pop

  • Page 740 and 741:

    26.3.1 COLLECTING BONSAI PLANTS FRO

  • Page 742 and 743:

    Strip bark Bare branch FIGURE 26-9

  • Page 744 and 745:

    26.5.2 SANITATION It is critical to

  • Page 746 and 747:

    27 Postharvest Handling and Marketi

  • Page 748 and 749:

    whereas oranges are picked (they ha

  • Page 750 and 751:

    (b) (a) (c) (d) (e1) (e2) (f) FIGUR

  • Page 752 and 753:

    To reduce packaging injury, contain

  • Page 754 and 755:

    is replaced by the by-product of re

  • Page 756 and 757:

    Stored produce may lose some color,

  • Page 758 and 759:

    with pricing. When selling by volum

  • Page 760 and 761:

    (a) (b) FIGURE 27-5 Horticultural p

  • Page 762 and 763:

    APPENDIX A Temperature: Converting

  • Page 764 and 765:

    APPENDIX B Metric Conversion Chart

  • Page 766 and 767:

    APPENDIX D Common and Scientific Na

  • Page 768 and 769:

    Pecan (Carya illinoensis) Peony (Pa

  • Page 770 and 771:

    GLOSSARY A Abaxial Turned away from

  • Page 772 and 773:

    Cellulose A complex carbohydrate th

  • Page 774 and 775:

    Floriculture The science and practi

  • Page 776 and 777:

    M Macronutrient An essential elemen

  • Page 778 and 779:

    Root cap A mass of hard cells cover

  • Page 780 and 781:

    INDEX A-frame, 395 A-horizon, 108 A

  • Page 782 and 783:

    defined, 390 fertilization, 432-434

  • Page 784 and 785:

    Radiant heaters, 378 Radicle, 90 Re

  • Page 786 and 787:

    color plate 1 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) M

  • Page 788 and 789:

    color plate 3 (b) (a) (c) (d) (e) (

  • Page 790 and 791:

    color plate 5 (a) (b) (d) (c) (e) (

  • Page 792 and 793:

    color plate 7 (b) (c) (d) (a) (e) (

  • Page 794 and 795:

    color plate 9 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (

  • Page 796 and 797:

    color plate 11 (a) (c) (b) (d) Grow

  • Page 798 and 799:

    color plate 13 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

  • Page 800 and 801:

    color plate 15 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

  • Page 802 and 803:

    color plate 17 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

  • Page 804 and 805:

    color plate 19 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

  • Page 806 and 807:

    color plate 21 (a) (b) (c) (e) (d)

  • Page 808 and 809:

    color plate 23 (c) (b) (a) (d) (e)

  • Page 810 and 811:

    color plate 25 (c) (a) (b) (d) (e)

  • Page 812 and 813:

    color plate 27 (a1) (a2) (b2) (b1)

  • Page 814 and 815:

    color plate 29 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

  • Page 816 and 817:

    color plate 31 (a) (b) (c) Floral d

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