Horticulture Principles and Practices

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To reduce packaging injury, containers may be lined or individual fruits may be prevented from touching by wrapping each fruit or including loose-filling materials. Only boxes that are rigid should be stacked to avoid collapsing into lower boxes. The boxes or containers should be adequately ventilated to avoid heat and carbon dioxide buildup. The size of containers should be selected for easy handling and for adequate ventilation on inner parts. Separator trays may be used when packing multilayers of produce. 27.3.5 TRANSPORTING TO MARKET As previously discussed, proper packaging is essential for safe transportation of produce. Fresh produce is best transported in a refrigerated truck or vehicle for long-distance transportation. The container should be stacked safely and prevented from shifting (poor stowage) in transit. Ventilation should be adequate to avoid overheating. Loading of packages onto pallets enhances air circulation. 27.4 POSTHARVEST CHANGES IN PRODUCTS As mentioned previously, many horticultural products are highly perishable and hence should be handled appropriately to maintain good quality (appearance and condition) for the market. The shelf life of produce is reduced drastically if harvesting occurs under unfavorable conditions. While some crops do not continue ripening after harvest, others do. Products tend to lose moisture from bruises or the point of attachment to the plant, which results in weight loss, wrinkling, and, in extreme cases, shriveling. Fruits that continue to ripen after harvesting (e.g., pear and banana) experience changes in flavor and sugar content (carbohydrates change to sugars), skin color, and softness. Dormancy may be broken in certain crops to initiate sprouting, as is the case in potatoes. If not properly protected, eventually the perishable product begins to rot. 27.5 STORING UNPROCESSED PRODUCTS Dry products such as nuts and grains store for long periods in dry environments. Fruits and vegetables have a much shorter shelf life, unless preservation measures are taken to prolong it. The storage conditions (especially temperature, humidity, and light) and the kind of crop (regarding quality characteristics and condition at time of storage) affect the duration of storage the crop can withstand before deteriorating (Table 27–1). Even under the best conditions, poor-quality produce deteriorates rapidly. The general goals of storage are to slow the rate of respiration occurring in living tissues, which also slows the rate of microbial activity, and to conserve moisture in the tissues (prevent excessive dehydration). These goals are accomplished by providing the appropriate temperature (usually cool to cold), maintaining good levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and controlling humidity. Bruised products respire at a higher rate than intact ones, and the areas around the wounds become discolored. Certain crops have an inherent genetic capacity for prolonged storage. Those with dormancy mechanisms have a reduced respiration rate in storage. As a general rule, cool-season crops are stored at low temperatures (0 to 10°C or 32 to 50°F) while warm-season crops are stored at warmer temperatures (10 to 12°C or 50 to 54°F). However, sweet corn, a warm-season crop, should not be stored at warm temperatures, which causes sugar to convert to starch, an event that reduces the sweetness of the corn. Instead, sweet corn that is not going to be used soon after harvesting should be placed in cool storage. Fresh fruits and vegetables should be stored at high relative humidity to retain their succulence and general quality. Crops such as lettuce and spinach require higher relative humidity (90 to 95 percent) than crops such as garlic and dry onion (70 to 75 percent). 27.5 Storing Unprocessed Products 727
TABLE 27–1 Crop Selected Vegetables and Fruits and Their Susceptibility to Injury from Cold Temperature When Stored below Freezing Susceptibility Fruits Apricot (Prunus armeniaca) Apple (Pyrus malus) Blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) Blackberry (Rubus argustus) Grape (Vitis spp.) Peach (Prunus persica) Plum (Prunus domestica) Squash (Cucurbita mixta) Pear (Pyrus communis) Vegetables Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis) Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleraceae var. gemmifera) Carrot (with top) (Daucus carota) Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) Celery (Apium graveolens) Cauliflower (Brassica oleraceae var. botrytis) Onion (dry) (Allium cepa) Turnip (Brassica rapa) Rutabaga (Brassica campestris var. napobrassica) Beet (with top) (Beta vulgaris) Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) VS MS VS VS MS VS VS VS MS VS RR MS VS MS MS MS RR RR RR MS VS, very susceptible; MS, moderately susceptible; RR, relatively resistant Darkness or subdued light should be provided in storage areas. Light may cause products such as potato tubers to green (from the development of chlorophyll). The two general methods of storage for unprocessed products are described in the following sections. 27.5.1 LOW-TEMPERATURE METHODS Fresh products retain the capacity for certain physiological activities such as respiration. Because respiration produces heat, ventilation in storage is critical for fresh produce to prevent excessive heat buildup, which causes rotting. The respiration rate of crops such as spinach is very high. At a given temperature, strawberries can respire about six times as much as lemons. Temperature is known to affect the rate of respiration; lower temperatures slow biochemical and enzymatic reactions. Temperate or cool-season crops generally tolerate lower temperatures than tropical crops, which are readily injured by cold. Whether at home or in a commercial setting, the mechanical refrigerator is the mechanism for cooling. Refrigerated trucks and containers are used to transport fresh horticultural products over long distances. For products such as cut flowers, strawberry, and lettuce that should be stored dry (no contact with moisture), a forced-air cooler system is used to pass cooled air through a stack of the product in a cold room. Some commercial growers use vacuum cooling for the direct field packaging of leafy crops. Package icing involves the use of slush ice for certain crops. In fall, vegetable produce may be stored outside in earthen mounds or trenches. The rate of respiration is affected by the concentration of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the environment. Where carbon dioxide levels are very high (low oxygen), respiration slows down. The normal levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air are 21 and 0.03 percent, respectively, nitrogen being 78 percent. Incidentally, in an airtight room full of fresh fruits such as apples, the oxygen soon gets used up in respiration and 728 Chapter 27 Postharvest Handling and Marketing of Horticultural Products
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HORTICULTURE Principles and Practic
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HORTICULTURE Principles and Practic
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With love to Theresa, quarterback;
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Brief Contents Preface xxi PART 1 T
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Contents Preface xxi PART 1 THE UND
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5.3 PLANT GROWTH PROCESSES 160 5.4
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8.20 COMMON GREENHOUSE DISEASES 276
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12.3 INTERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
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PART 6 Summary 541 References and S
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22.18 INDOOR COMPOSTING SYSTEMS 668
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Preface Horticulture is the area of
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am very grateful
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PART 1 THE UNDERLYING SCIENCE CHAPT
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1 What Is Horticulture? PURPOSE AND
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(a) (c) (b) (d) FIGURE 1-1 The many
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FIGURE 1 Bridge. The plaza view of
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CYCADS Many people mistake these pr
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FIGURE 2 The world's largest unbran
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FIGURE 2 Sold flowers are loaded on
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FIGURE 1-4 Formal landscaping featu
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1.4 ROLEOFTHENURSERY AND SEED INDUS
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1.5 HORTICULTURE AND SOCIETY Hortic
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TABLE 1-3 U.S. Horticultural Export
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Turfgrass Operation 1. Landscape te
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What Is Horticulture? This site pro
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Examples of botanical gardens http:
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2 Classifying and Naming Horticultu
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Eight major taxa are commonly used
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TABLE 2-3 The Divisions of the King
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HISTORY OF PLANT TAXONOMY PAUL R. F
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AGE OF HERBALISTS Two major events
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possible system of nomenclature. Ho
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TABLE 1 Type Categories for Plant N
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2.3 OTHER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS (O
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2. Shrubs. A shrub has no main trun
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Simple Fruits Fleshy Fruits Drupe B
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FIGURE 2-14 A pome, represented by
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2.3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES
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(a) (b) FIGURE 2-22 (Source: George
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FIGURE 2-25 A narrowleaf plant. (So
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FIGURE 2-29 Parts of a typical gras
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such as rosemary, sage, thyme, marj
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c. Leaves d. Bulbs 2. Cut across (t
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Whole plant Organs FIGURE 3-1 Level
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ibonucleic acid (RNA), proteins, an
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called cristae; this extreme foldin
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By virtue of its position, the prim
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Phloem Tissue Structurally, phloem
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(a) Stalk (b) Culm FIGURE 3-5 Cross
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Scale Compressed stem (a) Whole bul
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Upper epidermis Palisade layer FIGU
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usually occur in xerophytes. In cer
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FIGURE 3-22 Selected common leaf ma
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FIGURE 3-25 Selected common leaf ti
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absorption of water and minerals fr
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Outer bark Inner bark FIGURE 3-37 T
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Anther Filament Stamen FIGURE 3-41
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Exocarp Parts of a typi- FIGURE 3-4
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PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE LABORATORY 1.
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4.1 CLIMATE, WEATHER, AND HORTICULT
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concentration in the atmosphere.A c
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TABLE 4-1 Climatic Adaptation of Se
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and upward. Another important gener
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Rate of photosynthesis mg/sq. dm/hr
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and plants that flower under only c
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times of the year. Growers start th
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content. This section is sometimes
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TABLE 4-7 Soil Mineral Nutrients Es
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Micronutrients (Trace Elements) Mic
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Neutral FIGURE 4-11 A representatio
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4.4 FERTILIZERS Fertilizer sources
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One of the most commonly used contr
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Chlorosis (the yellowing of green l
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Fertilizers may be applied before p
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It is neither practical nor safe to
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Solution: How much of ammonium nitr
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1°C (34°F), the optimum temperatu
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Cellulose sponge Perched water tabl
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Overhead Sprinkler Irrigation Water
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FIGURE 4-19 Furrow irrigation of le
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can self-install an underground irr
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1. Surface drainage. Surface draina
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Secondary Tillage Primary tillage i
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(a) (b) (c) (d) FIGURE 4-20 (Source
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texture. The most commonly used gra
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TABLE 4-11 Selected Standard Mixes
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Steam Pasteurization Steam pasteuri
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Maracher, H. 1986. Mineral nutritio
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5 Plant Physiology PURPOSE AND EXPE
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Growth in an organism follows a cer
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5.1.2 THE ROLE OF SIGNALS IN GROWTH
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waxes are embedded. Waxes consist o
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5.3.1 PHOTOSYNTHESIS Photosynthesis
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CO 2 FIGURE 5-6 The C 4 pathway of
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Growth and Development The general
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TABLE 5-2 Energy Produced from Aero
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Certain plants are adapted to dry e
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conditions exist to sustain growth
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Shoot Elongation In certain plants,
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for success, since high temperature
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FIGURE 5-13 Ripening of plantain sh
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Terminal bud removed Unbranched pla
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conditions—pertaining to light, m
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them to maturity. The major process
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6 Breeding Horticultural Plants PUR
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Similarly, there can be no plant br
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APPLICATION, CHALLENGES, AND PROSPE
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hit with target DNA. Therefore, it
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Generally, within ten days of exper
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Aziz A.N., Sauve R.J., Zhou S., 200
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(b) F 1 Rr Rr round round F 2 RR R
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e.g., Aa × Aa), the lethal allele
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eeder’s equation. Simply stated,
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Before the seed or product becomes
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6.18.2 THE GENERAL STEPS OF RDNA TE
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2. Political disagreement. There ar
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REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING Ac
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PART 2 PROTECTING HORTICULTURAL PLA
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7 Biological Enemies of Horticultur
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8. Weeds may clog drains, waterways
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is also a root parasite that obtain
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LEGISLATIVE Both state and federal
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Example Integrated cultural, physic
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7.4.2 IMPORTANT INSECT ORDERS Insec
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Egg FIGURE 7-3 Life cycle of an ins
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sucking insects (also found with so
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FIGURE 7-12 Corn earworm damage. (S
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TABLE 7-1 Selected Fungal Diseases
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7.6.1 SMALL ANIMALS Rabbits, mice,
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FIGURE 7-16 The disease triangle. P
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fungitoxic exudates in its leaves,
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SUMMARY Insects are a major class o
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For the home growers or those who c
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for consumers and the environment).
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TABLE 8-1 Strategy 4: Strategies an
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gibberellic acid spray overcomes st
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In a competitive industry, a variet
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Chemicals gain access to humans thr
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2. Pesticide management. Controllin
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Every organism has its natural enem
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TABLE 8-3 Selected Examples of Biol
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1 2 YEAR 3 4 FIGURE 8-5 cycle. A cr
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6. Heat treatment. In the greenhous
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Organic Compounds (Organics) Organi
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under enclosed conditions (e.g., wa
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FIGURE 8-9 A tractor-mounted spraye
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8.11.9 LANDSCAPE PESTS AND THEIR CO
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application, a particular herbicide
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Further, they do not provide unifor
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SUMMARY Herbicides are chemicals us
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Sulfur may be applied for both prev
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8.23 PREVENTING GREENHOUSE DISEASES
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PART 3 PROPAGATING HORTICULTURAL PL
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9 Sexual Propagation PURPOSE AND EX
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Anther Microspore Megaspore mother
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Lettuce seeds Red light Darkness Fa
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FEDERAL AND STATE SEED LAWS Federal
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Germination Test In laboratory prac
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FIGURE 15 The essential structures
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processing into flour or meal). How
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physiologically immature seeds must
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seeds may be treated in this way be
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The two basic modes of seedling eme
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locations in the field. Home garden
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FIGURE 9-9 A plastic flat. (Source:
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(a) (b) FIGURE 9-12 (a) Sowing seed
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y the gardener or grower. Whatever
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REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING Co
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species enables vegetative propagat
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for rapid rooting. There are two ba
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Cutting involving one node (e.g., s
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This practice is especially importa
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10.6.4 STICKING THE CUTTING Cutting
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(a) Indexing by budding Diseased pl
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10.11 M ETHODS OF GRAFTING Grafting
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Scion Wax FIGURE 10-17 Steps in bar
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MODULE 3 BUDDING 10.12 TYPES OF BUD
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MODULE 4 LAYERING 10.13 TYPES OF LA
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Buried part of shoot is nicked FIGU
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variety of ways. In air layering, a
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FIGURE 10-34 by using cormels. Prop
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Psuedobulbs In the Dendrobium orchi
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The technique is used widely in cro
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PART 4 GROWING PLANTS INDOORS CHAPT
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11 Growing Houseplants PURPOSE AND
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TABLE 11-1 Common houseplants Commo
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Saddle leaf Philodendron selloum To
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Window Displays Plants in windows e
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CONTAINER GARDENS DR. TERRI W. STAR
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annuals and hardy perennial species
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of the large container filled with
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perfection about four to six weeks
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FIGURE 11-6 Flowers displayed on th
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TABLE 11-5 Plant Selected Plants fo
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The lighting condition near these w
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Fluorescent Lights Fluorescent ligh
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may be used for one pot or a group
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garden rooms, atriums, or a large c
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The photoperiod affects when the ho
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patted firm to keep the plant erect
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Other Materials Apart from clay and
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(a) ( FIGURE 11-25 Support for plan
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TABLE 11-7 Common Problems of House
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• Keep soil moist all the time
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• Prefers high temperatures • P
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amount and quality of light. If sup
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12 Controlled-Environment Horticult
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6. Curvilinear 7. Curved eave 8. Do
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Detached greenhouses have several a
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12.2.3 FRAME DESIGN There are two b
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horticultural business a less-expen
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Texas, Hawaii, and California. The
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source of heat for times when the t
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FIGURE 12-17 Greenhouse production
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FIGURE 12-21 Moving tables allowing
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Research program on greenhouse engi
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greenhouses equipped with a variety
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FIGURE 1 Annual energy required per
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This system was demonstrated in a 5
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FIGURE 6 Amounts of waste energy ut
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Ekholt, B.A., D.R. Mears, M.S. Gini
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or object to be warmed. Failure to
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objects in its path (e.g., the floo
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FIGURE 12-27 Motorized ventilation
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FIGURE 12-30 Movable internal shade
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FIGURE 12-33 A high pressure sodium
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Source of Water The quality of loca
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FIGURE 12-37 Overhead sprinkler irr
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Intermittent Feed Greenhouse plants
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However, in winter, greenhouse vent
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OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT 1. Explain the
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. Foliage or green plants. Foliage
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2. Labor. The size of the labor for
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FIGURE 13-1 Greenhouse production o
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FIGURE 13-2 Lettuce plug is inserte
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13.8.4 AGGREGATE HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS
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(a) (b) (c) FIGURE 13-6 Plug produc
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14 Growing Succulents PURPOSE AND E
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FIGURE 14-3 Leaf succulent represen
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frost-hardy. Their rosettes are usu
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TABLE 14-1 Plant Selected Popular S
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(a) (b) FIGURE 14-12 Typical bromel
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14.7.1 WHAT ARE CACTI? 14.7 CACTI C
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FIGURE 14-16 Opuntia. (Source: Crai
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FIGURE 14-23 Mammillaria. (Source:
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FIGURE 14-28 Both desert and jungle
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Growing mix Gravel Cacti (a) (b) FI
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PART5 GROWING PLANTS OUTDOORS: ORNA
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15 Principles of Landscaping PURPOS
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8. Create recreational grounds. Suc
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knowledge, with concern for resourc
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(a) (b) (c) FIGURE 15-2 The occurre
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GUIDELINES FOR LANDSCAPE DESIGN DAV
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the landscape. Some very successful
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Rhythm and Line Panoramic view of a
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FIGURE 15-10 A formal garden. The e
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How frequently do they entertain? A
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the patio should be located on the
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15.7.1 SELECTING PLANTS A homeowner
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Plant Arrangement in the Landscape
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Shadow FIGURE 15-15 Planting a tree
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SUMMARY Landscaping enhances the su
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3. Supply materials on a timely bas
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such as preparation rooms (for mixi
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of environmental fluctuations. Furt
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FIGURE 16-4 A bare-root tree seedli
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17 Installation of the Landscape PU
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for walks, driveways, and patios (F
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Planting may be limited to accentin
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17.3.3 PREPARING THE BED The soil s
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FIGURE 17-4 Bedding plants raised i
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SUMMARY Bedding plants are largely
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TABLE 17-6 Selected Ground Covers T
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TABLE 17-7 Selected Ornamental Gras
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they determine the success and surv
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12. Wildlife attraction. Trees in t
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pennsylvanica), hackberry (Celtis s
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y winds. A stake, which is often a
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TABLE 17-8 Selected Narrowleaf Ever
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TABLE 17-11 Selected Deciduous Shru
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Blooming bushes 1. Blue mist shrub
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Planting Bulblets and Bulbils Speci
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may be divided such that each secti
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FIGURE 18-1 (Source: George Acquaah
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Cool-Season (Temperate) Grasses In
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Growth Habit Turfgrasses are the mo
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Heavy Use Lawns on playgrounds and
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The seed should be free from weeds
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Source of Sod As with seed, sod sup
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A plug of sod FIGURE 18-7 Plugging
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way, plants are able to adapt to th
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form of a can placed on the lawn wi
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TABLE 18-3 Some Common Lawn and Tur
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even surface soil surface for layin
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MacCaskey, M. 1987. All about lawns
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Pruning is sometimes done in conjun
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4. Pruning may be done to reduce th
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19.4.2 SAWS A saw may be designed t
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defeat the purpose of pruning. The
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Bud withers as cut end dries back d
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19.6 STRATEGIES FOR PRUNING ABOVEGR
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Rejuvenation Pruning Cut canes to a
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3. In the third and subsequent year
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(a) Cut Prune (b) FIGURE 19-16 Step
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Eucalyptus and Paulownia are amenab
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TRAINING & PRUNING DECIDUOUS FRUIT
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Summer pruning eliminates an energy
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a) b) FIGURE 2 Newly planted apple
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FIGURE 6 Wooden limb spreaders can
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FIGURE 9. An apple tree trained to
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years to promote continued lateral
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Horizontal Espalier The horizontal
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19.16.1 CANE FRUITS Cane fruits are
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FIGURE 19-26 Shearing of Christmas
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pyramid-like form that is wider at
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After selecting the appropriate spe
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PART 6 GROWING PLANTS OUTDOORS: VEG
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20 Growing Vegetables Outdoors PURP
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The National Agricultural Statistic
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(This item omitted from WebBook edi
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growers should take to determine an
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pests and reduce/ eliminate hail da
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square yard (10 to 68 grams per squ
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High tunnels help increase the prof
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(This item omitted from WebBook edi
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20.4 VEGETABLE MARKET TYPES Fresh V
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Establishing the Crop Planting into
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home water supply from the tap. Thi
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Cole crop Cabbage Root Potato Bean
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6. Adequate nutrition. While overfe
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variable, ranging from creamy yello
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There are two general production pr
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This toxin is heat resistant and no
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large, or jumbo. The bulb may be sw
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REFERENCES Growing selected vegetab
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TABLE 21-1 Popular Herbs and Their
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) FIGURE 21-1
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22 Organic Farming PURPOSE AND EXPE
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22.3 PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC FARMING
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and the specific materials to be us
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22.8 MANAGING SOIL PHYSICAL QUALITY
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preemergent or early postemergent o
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Composting is a deliberate activity
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22.14.5 THE CARBON-TO-NITROGEN RATI
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Moisture Supply Water is required b
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Compost materials FIGURE 22-4 a wir
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As microbial decomposition proceeds
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Establishment and Management of an
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night, freezing can occur in spring
Page 700 and 701:
accomplished by stratification. It
Page 702 and 703: transmitted by the dagger nematode
Page 704 and 705: PART 7 SPECIAL TECHNIQUES AND HANDL
Page 706 and 707: 24 Cut Flowers and Floral Design PU
Page 708 and 709: to more than four-fold in standard
Page 710 and 711: Temperature and Humidity Wilting re
Page 712 and 713: FLORAL DESIGN: AN OVERVIEW BY WM. J
Page 714 and 715: Principle Definition Types (or Uses
Page 716 and 717: pH value-a measure of the acidity o
Page 718 and 719: FIGURE 6 Parallel Design-Parallel d
Page 720 and 721: 24.3.2 TOOLS AND MATERIALS The tool
Page 722 and 723: 3. Establish the focal point. 4. Ad
Page 724 and 725: Natural Drying To dry naturally, fl
Page 726 and 727: 24.4.3 DRIED FLOWER ARRANGEMENTS Dr
Page 728 and 729: 25 Terrarium Culture PURPOSE AND EX
Page 730 and 731: FIGURE 25-3 Terrarium containers ar
Page 732 and 733: FIGURE 25-5 Assortment of tools use
Page 734 and 735: 25.6.7 ENHANCING THE DISPLAY Certai
Page 736 and 737: (a) (b) FIGURE 26-1 Bonsai can be c
Page 738 and 739: TABLE 26-3 Plant A Selection of Pop
Page 740 and 741: 26.3.1 COLLECTING BONSAI PLANTS FRO
Page 742 and 743: Strip bark Bare branch FIGURE 26-9
Page 744 and 745: 26.5.2 SANITATION It is critical to
Page 746 and 747: 27 Postharvest Handling and Marketi
Page 748 and 749: whereas oranges are picked (they ha
Page 750 and 751: (b) (a) (c) (d) (e1) (e2) (f) FIGUR
Page 754 and 755: is replaced by the by-product of re
Page 756 and 757: Stored produce may lose some color,
Page 758 and 759: with pricing. When selling by volum
Page 760 and 761: (a) (b) FIGURE 27-5 Horticultural p
Page 762 and 763: APPENDIX A Temperature: Converting
Page 764 and 765: APPENDIX B Metric Conversion Chart
Page 766 and 767: APPENDIX D Common and Scientific Na
Page 768 and 769: Pecan (Carya illinoensis) Peony (Pa
Page 770 and 771: GLOSSARY A Abaxial Turned away from
Page 772 and 773: Cellulose A complex carbohydrate th
Page 774 and 775: Floriculture The science and practi
Page 776 and 777: M Macronutrient An essential elemen
Page 778 and 779: Root cap A mass of hard cells cover
Page 780 and 781: INDEX A-frame, 395 A-horizon, 108 A
Page 782 and 783: defined, 390 fertilization, 432-434
Page 784 and 785: Radiant heaters, 378 Radicle, 90 Re
Page 786 and 787: color plate 1 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) M
Page 788 and 789: color plate 3 (b) (a) (c) (d) (e) (
Page 790 and 791: color plate 5 (a) (b) (d) (c) (e) (
Page 792 and 793: color plate 7 (b) (c) (d) (a) (e) (
Page 794 and 795: color plate 9 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (
Page 796 and 797: color plate 11 (a) (c) (b) (d) Grow
Page 798 and 799: color plate 13 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Page 800 and 801: color plate 15 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Page 802 and 803:
color plate 17 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Page 804 and 805:
Page 806 and 807:
color plate 21 (a) (b) (c) (e) (d)
Page 808 and 809:
color plate 23 (c) (b) (a) (d) (e)
Page 810 and 811:
color plate 25 (c) (a) (b) (d) (e)
Page 812 and 813:
color plate 27 (a1) (a2) (b2) (b1)
Page 814 and 815:
Page 816 and 817:
color plate 31 (a) (b) (c) Floral d
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Horticulture Principles and Practices

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