Laboratory Manual for Introductory Geology 4e

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Setting the Stagefor Learning aboutthe Earth1This sunset over the red cliffs of the Grand Canyon on the Colorado River in Arizona, showsthe Earth System at a glance—air, water, and rock all interacting to produce this stunninglandscape.1
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Understand challengesgeologists face when studyinga body as large and complex asthe Earth■ Practice basic geologicreasoning and strategies■ Understand the concept ofthe Earth System and beginto learn how energy andmatter are connected throughgeologic cycles■ Use concepts of dimension,scale, and order of magnitudeto describe the Earth■ Review the materials andforces you will encounter whilestudying the Earth■ Learn how geologists discussthe ages of geologic materialsand events and how wemeasure the rates of geologicprocesses■ Become familiar with the typesof diagrams and images usedby geologists1.1 Thinking Like a Geologist1.1.1 IntroductionLearning about the Earth is like training to become a detective. Both geologists anddetectives need keen powers of observation, curiosity about slight differences, broadscientific understanding, and instruments to analyze samples. And both ask thesame questions: What happened? How? When? Why? Much of the logical thinkingis the same, but there are big differences between the work of a detective and thatof a geologist. A detective’s “cold” case may be 30 years old, but “old” to a geologistmeans hundreds of millions or billions of years. To a detective, a “body” is a humanbody, but to a geologist, a “body” may be a mountain range or a continent. Eyewitnessescan help detectives, but for most of Earth history there weren’t any humansto witness geologic events. To study the Earth, geologists must therefore developstrategies different from those of other kinds of investigators. The overall goal of thismanual is to help you look at the Earth and think about its mysteries like a geologist.To help you begin thinking like a geologist, let’s start with a typical geologicmystery. Almost 300 years ago, settlers along the coast of Maine built piers (like themodern pier shown in FIG. 1.1) to load and unload ships. Some of these piers arenow submerged to a depth of 1 meter (39 inches) below sea level.FIGURE 1.1 Subsidence along the coast of Maine.MATERIALSNEEDED■ Triple-beam or electronicbalance■ 500-mL graduated cylinder■ Clear plastic ruler withdivisions in tenths of an inchand millimeters (included inthe Geo Tools section at theback of this manual)■ Calculator■ CompassTourists might not think twice about this phenomenon before heading for a lobsterdinner at the local restaurant, but a geologist would want to know what causedthe submergence and how rapidly the pier was submerged. How would a geologistgo about tackling this problem? Exercise 1.1 outlines the problem and shows someof the basic geologic reasoning needed to get answers to the questions raised above.At the same time, this exercise will be your first of many opportunities to see thatgeologists solve real-world problems affecting real people.2 CHAPTER 1 SETTING THE STAGE FOR LEARNING ABOUT THE EARTH
Page 2 and 3: LABORATORY MANUALFOR INTRODUCTORY G
Page 4 and 5: CONTENTSPreface viiCHAPTER 1Setting
Page 6 and 7: CHAPTER 8Studying the Earth’s Lan
Page 8 and 9: PREFACEThis laboratory manual is ba
Page 10 and 11: exercises interspersed throughout t
Page 12 and 13: Supplements(available for download
Page 14: ABOUT THE AUTHORSAllan Ludman is Pr
Page 19 and 20: One way to obtain more data would b
Page 21 and 22: TABLE 1.1 Basic definitions●●
Page 23 and 24: EXERCISE 1.2Reservoirs in the Earth
Page 25 and 26: EXERCISE 1.4Sources of Heat for Geo
Page 27 and 28: 1.3 Units for Geologic MeasurementB
Page 29 and 30: FIGURE 1.5 Measuring the volume of
Page 31 and 32: FIGURE 1.6 The white cliffs of Dove
Page 33 and 34: MileFIGURE 1.7 Methods for dealing
Page 35 and 36: FIGURE 1.8 An example of the princi
Page 37 and 38: EXERCISE 1.9Name:Course:How Long Do
Page 39 and 40: APPENDIX 1.1Metric-U.S. Customary C
Page 41 and 42: LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Become fami
Page 43 and 44: plate between two continents, conti
Page 45 and 46: FIGURE 2.4 The Earth’s major clim
Page 47 and 48: More clues soon came from seismolog
Page 49 and 50: FIGURE 2.8 Magnetic reversals of th
Page 51 and 52: FIGURE 2.11 Rates of motion of the
Page 53 and 54: EXERCISE 2.7A Tale of Two RidgesNam
Page 55 and 56: EXERCISE 2.8Continental Rifting: Sp
Page 57 and 58: Even without any earthquake informa
Page 59 and 60: EXERCISE 2.10Estimating the Amount
Page 61 and 62: 2.5.5 Hot Spots and Hot-Spot Tracks
Page 63 and 64: EXERCISE 2.11Name:Course:Determinin
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EXERCISE 2.12Name:Course:Long-Term
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 2Analyzing Plate
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Understand wh
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When a mineral grows without interf
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FIGURE 3.1 Specimens of the mineral
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3.4.5 HardnessThe hardness of a min
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FIGURE 3.4 Crystals of some common
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FIGURE 3.6 Cleavage in common miner
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3.4.9 MagnetismA few minerals are a
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EXERCISE 3.7Identifying MineralsNam
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The minerals and elements we most r
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EXERCISE 3.9Mineral Resources in Yo
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 3Extracting Miner
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APPENDIX 3.1Mineral Identification
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APPENDIX 3.2Determinative Tables fo
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APPENDIX 3.2Determinative Tables fo
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APPENDIX 3.3Common Minerals and The
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MINERAL PROFILE DATA SHEET NameSamp
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Understand
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FIGURE 4.1 The rock cycle.Heating a
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FIGURE 4.3 Typical grain shapes.(a)
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EXERCISE 4.2Describing a Rock’s T
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EXERCISE 4.3Understanding the Origi
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EXERCISE 4.4Interpreting the Textur
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■ Hardness: Use a steel safety pi
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FIGURE 4.6 Flowchart for determinin
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4.8 The Economic Value of RocksMost
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FIGURE 4.7 Examples of igneous, sed
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 4Deciphering Land
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Become fami
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crystalline rocks. Those that are s
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EXERCISE 5.3Interpreting Igneous Co
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FIGURE 5.4 Volcanic glasscontains n
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EXERCISE 5.5Interpreting Fragmental
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Felsic igneous rocks (from feldspar
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minerals melt, and (3) how plate-te
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EXERCISE 5.8Insights from Melting a
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EXERCISE 5.9Explaining Features of
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extreme crustal stretching has expo
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EXERCISE 5.13Interpreting Plate-Tec
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FIGURE 5.12 Distribution of volcano
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FIGURE 5.14 Comparison of areas in
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EXERCISE 5.15Stratovolcano Disaster
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 5Exploring the Na
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IGNEOUS ROCKS STUDY SHEET NameSampl
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FIGURE 6.2 Chemical weathering of f
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FIGURE 6.3 The five steps in clasti
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6.3.2 Chemical Sedimentary RocksChe
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6.3.3 Biochemical and Organic Sedim
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TABLE 6.2 Classification of common
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FIGURE 6.5 Flow chart for identifyi
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FIGURE 6.6 Sediment sorting.(a) Poo
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EXERCISE 6.7Recognizing Sediment De
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FIGURE 6.9 Sedimentary rock beds.(a
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FIGURE 6.12 Cross bedding, a type o
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FIGURE 6.15 Fossils reveal remarkab
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FIGURE 6.16 Examples of depositiona
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EXERCISE 6.10Interpreting Sedimenta
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SampleTexture(grain size, shape,sor
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FIGURE 7.1 Examples of changes from
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FIGURE 7.2 Growth of metamorphic mi
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FIGURE 7.3 Types of stress.(a) Comp
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FIGURE 7.5 Photomicrographs of rock
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FIGURE 7.6 Varieties of gneiss form
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EXERCISE 7.2Identifying Metamorphic
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FIGURE 7.11 Settings of metamorphis
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EXERCISE 7.4Interpreting the Type o
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EXERCISE 7.5Name:Course:Index Miner
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Sample Minerals presentMETAMORPHIC
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Sample Minerals presentMETAMORPHIC
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Become fami
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EXERCISE 8.1Which Image Works Best?
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More sophisticated grid systems are
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EXERCISE 8.2The Latitude/Longitude
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EXERCISE 8.3Locating Points with th
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EXERCISE 8.4Locating Points with th
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But which north is north? No, this
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e300FIGURE 8.10 An area in eastern
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8.4 Vertical Exaggeration:A Matter
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 8Locating Places
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Understand ho
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this information on the most recent
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FIGURE 9.5 Digital elevation model(
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250300300FIGURE 9.7 Hachured contou
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9.3.4 Rules and Applications of Con
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EXERCISE 9.6Name:Course:Survival of
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FIGURE 9.8 Map of the microwave tow
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FIGURE 9.11 The effect of vertical
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 9Working with Top
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APPENDIX 9.1Topographic Map Symbols
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Interpreting GeologicStructures on
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of structures on the ground (the ma
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EXERCISE 10.2The Basic Types of Con
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EXERCISE 10.3Determining Strike and
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FIGURE 10.4 Block diagrams.Map view
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FIGURE 10.6 Block diagrams showing
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FIGURE 10.7 Hanging wall, footwall,
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is not the same as that of the beds
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EXERCISE 10.9Name:Course:Interpreti
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FIGURE 10.9 Geologic maps (continue
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EXERCISE 10.11Name:Course:Using Sym
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EXERCISE 10.12Name:Course:Construct
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EXERCISE 10.13Interpreting Simple G
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FIGURE 10.13 Structural control of
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10.6 Reading Real Geologic MapsYou
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FIGURE 10.14 (continued).Geologic M
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EXERCISE 10.18Making a Geologic Map
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 10Name:Course:Und
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S-waves (FIG. 11.2b) are seismic wa
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FIGURE 11.4 Worldwide distribution
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FIGURE 11.5 Travel-time curves show
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EXERCISE 11.4Name:Course:Locating a
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EXERCISE 11.4Locating an Earthquake
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EXERCISE 11.4Name:Course:Locating a
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EXERCISE 11.5Name:Course:Determinin
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11.5 Predicting EarthquakeHazards:
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EXERCISE 11.7Locating Liquefaction
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After watching dramatic images of t
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APPENDIX 11.1Seismic Analysis Works
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Determine t
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EXERCISE 12.2Relative Ages in Cross
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EXERCISE 12.3Applying the Principle
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EXERCISE 12.4Name:Course:Using Sedi
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FIGURE 12.6 How the three kinds of
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EXERCISE 12.5Name:Course:Decipherin
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becoming extinct. When we find an i
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EXERCISE 12.6Name:Course:Dating Roc
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FIGURE 12.9 Changing parent:daughte
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EXERCISE 12.7Putting It All Togethe
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EXERCISE 12.8What Numerical Ages Ca
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EXERCISE 12.9Correlation (continued
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EXERCISE 12.10Cretaceous Paleogeogr
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Landscapes Formed13by StreamsStream
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EXERCISE 13.1Differences between St
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EXERCISE 13.2Why Some Streams Meand
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RFIGURE 13.5 The Genesee River sout
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EXERCISE 13.2Why Some Streams Meand
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FIGURE 13.8 A floodplain and its as
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ST. FRANCIS CO4070797064UNION PACIF
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1000Big900900B I G H I L LARKANSAS9
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FIGURE 13.13 Major drainage basins
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anchWTJ54MurphyNew BloomfieldTown65
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EXERCISE 13.6Recognizing Stages of
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MT T L E62446267DogRock757266170634
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13.7 When Streams Don’t Seemto Fo
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EXERCISE 13.7Deducing the History o
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13.8 When There’s Too Much Water:
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EXERCISE 13.9Estimating Potential F
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13.9 Streams, Society, and the Envi
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Groundwater as aLandscape Formerand
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EXERCISE 14.1Factors Affecting Infi
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EXERCISE 14.1Name:Course:Factors Af
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FIGURE 14.2 Groundwater landscape e
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60075000750600FIGURE 14.4 Karst top
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FIGURE 14.5 The water table separat
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EXERCISE 14.4Effects of a Changing
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100100100FIGURE 14.9 Karst topograp
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4400B a l d r i d g e C a n y o n42
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EXERCISE 14.7Name:Course:Environmen
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EXERCISE 14.8Name:Course:Environmen
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Glacial Landscapes15These jagged mo
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FIGURE 15.2 Mountain and continenta
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EXERCISE 15.1Comparison of Glaciers
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EXERCISE 15.3Erosional Features of
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15.3.2 Depositional LandscapesLands
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EXERCISE 15.4Landforms at the Termi
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900900800BOWEN1000700C R E E K900RO
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450400LEMON400ROADSLAYTON4504503Spo
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15.4 Landscapes Producedby Mountain
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The base level for a tributary stre
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3700380036003900Northwest BasinLake
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FIGURE 15.17 Atmospheric temperatur
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 15Flowing Ice as
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GRID: 10/inch = 39,4/10cm
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Processes and Landforms16in Arid En
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FIGURE 16.2 Types of arid regions.(
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16.2 Processes in Arid RegionsNow l
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16.3 Progressive Evolution of Arid
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EXERCISE 16.3Interpreting Arid Land
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EXERCISE 16.3Interpreting Arid Land
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RiverGila85WatermanWashR A I N B O
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85130011001000FIGURE 16.8 Topograph
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FIGURE 16.10 Characteristics and ev
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400040004000L o w e V a l l e y4100
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FIGURE 16.13 Vulnerability to deser
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Shoreline Landscapes17Coastlines co
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FIGURE 17.1 Types of shorelines.(a)
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EXERCISE 17.1Erodibility and Stabil
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17.2.5 Emergent and Submergent Shor
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1382427FIGURE 17.5 Maine coastline
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EXERCISE 17.5Measuring Sea-Level (a
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FIGURE 17.7 Area just south of Lake
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17.3.2 Coastal Erosion and Depositi
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FIGURE 17.11 Erosional features of
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EXERCISE 17.7Erosional Processes an
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17.3.5 Depositional FeaturesPromine
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EXERCISE 17.9Depositional Processes
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FIGURE 17.18 The shoreline of theno
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FIGURE 17.21 Aerial view showing ho
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EXERCISE 17.10Name:Course:Unintende
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FIGURE 17.24 Counterclockwise wind
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EXERCISE 17.11Name:Course:Effects o
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FIGURE 17.27 Flooding caused by hur
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EXERCISE 17.12Effects of Storm Path
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 17Understanding T
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Explain why p
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EXERCISE 18.1Humans and Earth Syste
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EXERCISE 18.2Short-Term Changes in
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Weather describes atmospheric condi
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FIGURE 18.5 The greenhouse effect.G
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EXERCISE 18.3Name:Course:Assessing
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FIGURE 18.8 Movement of water from
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FIGURE 18.10 Projected sea-level sc
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EXERCISE 18.4Effects of Sea-Level R
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FIGURE 18.13 Estimated human popula
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FIGURE 18.14 Two bird species hunte
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EXERCISE 18.6Name:Course:How Quickl
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 18Inducing Change
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Courtesy of Allan Ludman; p. 162 (t
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270 280260240 250290 300Clay310 320
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Align with northern latitude tick m
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