Laboratory Manual for Introductory Geology 4e

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EXERCISE 12.5Name:Course:Deciphering Geologic History Using Physical Principles of Relative Dating (continued)Section:Date:Geologic cross section 4IEAHBYoungestCCJGdJfGOldestWe will see later in this chapter how it is possible to date the rocks above andbelow an unconformity and therefore estimate the amount of geologic time missingbetween their deposition.12.3 Biological Methods for Relative Age DatingIn 1793, British canal builder and amateur naturalist William Smith noticed differentfossils in the layers of rock he was excavating. He discovered wherever heworked that particular fossils were always found in rocks that lay above others, andhe suggested that fossils could be used to tell the relative ages of the rocks.12.3.1 The Principle of Faunal and Floral SuccessionOther geologists confirmed Smith’s hypothesis and formulated the principle of faunaland floral succession, which states that fossil animals (fauna) and plants (flora)throughout the world record an increasing complexity of life forms from olderrocks to younger ones. Not all fossils can be used to date rocks, however, becausesome, such as blue-green algae, have existed over most of geologic time and are notspecific to any particular time span.Index fossils are remains of plants or animals that were distributed widelythroughout the world but existed for only a short span of geologic time before12.3 BIOLOGICAL METHODS FOR RELATIVE AGE DATING311
becoming extinct. When we find an index fossil, we know that the rock in which itis found dates from that unique span of time. This is like knowing that a Ford Edselcould have been made only in the three years between 1957 and 1960, or the ModelA between 1903 and 1931. Tyrannosaurus rex, for example, lived only in the span ofgeologic time known as the Cretaceous Period; it should not have been cast as a villainin a Jurassic theme park (representing an earlier time period).12.3.2 The Geologic Time ScaleDetermining the relative ages of rock units by physical methods and using indexfossils to place those units in their correct time spans allowed geologists to constructa geologic time scale (FIG. 12.8). The scale divides geologic time into progressivelysmaller segments called eons, eras, periods, and epochs (not shown). The names ofFIGURE 12.8 The geologic time scale.EonEraNumericalage (Ma)PeriodAge ranges of selected fossil groupsPhanerozoicCenozoicMesozoicPaleozoic2.666145201252289.9323.2359419443.4485541QuaternaryTertiaryCretaceousJurassicTriassicPermianPennsylvanianMississippianDevonianSilurianOrdovicianCambrianShelledanimalsFloweringplantsDinosaursFishAmphibiansTrilobitesReptilesMammalsHumansHadean Archean ProterozoicSeveralerasSeveraleras2,500(2.5 Ga)4,000(4.0 Ga)4.56 Ga312 CHAPTER 12 INTERPRETING GEOLOGIC HISTORY
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LABORATORY MANUALFOR INTRODUCTORY G
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CONTENTSPreface viiCHAPTER 1Setting
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CHAPTER 8Studying the Earth’s Lan
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PREFACEThis laboratory manual is ba
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exercises interspersed throughout t
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Supplements(available for download
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ABOUT THE AUTHORSAllan Ludman is Pr
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Understand ch
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One way to obtain more data would b
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TABLE 1.1 Basic definitions●●
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EXERCISE 1.2Reservoirs in the Earth
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EXERCISE 1.4Sources of Heat for Geo
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1.3 Units for Geologic MeasurementB
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FIGURE 1.5 Measuring the volume of
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FIGURE 1.6 The white cliffs of Dove
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MileFIGURE 1.7 Methods for dealing
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FIGURE 1.8 An example of the princi
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EXERCISE 1.9Name:Course:How Long Do
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APPENDIX 1.1Metric-U.S. Customary C
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Become fami
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plate between two continents, conti
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FIGURE 2.4 The Earth’s major clim
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More clues soon came from seismolog
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FIGURE 2.8 Magnetic reversals of th
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FIGURE 2.11 Rates of motion of the
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EXERCISE 2.7A Tale of Two RidgesNam
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EXERCISE 2.8Continental Rifting: Sp
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Even without any earthquake informa
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EXERCISE 2.10Estimating the Amount
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2.5.5 Hot Spots and Hot-Spot Tracks
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EXERCISE 2.11Name:Course:Determinin
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EXERCISE 2.12Name:Course:Long-Term
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 2Analyzing Plate
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Understand wh
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When a mineral grows without interf
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FIGURE 3.1 Specimens of the mineral
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3.4.5 HardnessThe hardness of a min
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FIGURE 3.4 Crystals of some common
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FIGURE 3.6 Cleavage in common miner
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3.4.9 MagnetismA few minerals are a
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EXERCISE 3.7Identifying MineralsNam
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The minerals and elements we most r
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EXERCISE 3.9Mineral Resources in Yo
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 3Extracting Miner
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APPENDIX 3.1Mineral Identification
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APPENDIX 3.2Determinative Tables fo
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APPENDIX 3.2Determinative Tables fo
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APPENDIX 3.3Common Minerals and The
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MINERAL PROFILE DATA SHEET NameSamp
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Understand
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FIGURE 4.1 The rock cycle.Heating a
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FIGURE 4.3 Typical grain shapes.(a)
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EXERCISE 4.2Describing a Rock’s T
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EXERCISE 4.3Understanding the Origi
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EXERCISE 4.4Interpreting the Textur
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■ Hardness: Use a steel safety pi
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FIGURE 4.6 Flowchart for determinin
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4.8 The Economic Value of RocksMost
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FIGURE 4.7 Examples of igneous, sed
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 4Deciphering Land
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crystalline rocks. Those that are s
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EXERCISE 5.3Interpreting Igneous Co
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FIGURE 5.4 Volcanic glasscontains n
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EXERCISE 5.5Interpreting Fragmental
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Felsic igneous rocks (from feldspar
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minerals melt, and (3) how plate-te
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EXERCISE 5.8Insights from Melting a
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EXERCISE 5.9Explaining Features of
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extreme crustal stretching has expo
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EXERCISE 5.13Interpreting Plate-Tec
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FIGURE 5.12 Distribution of volcano
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FIGURE 5.14 Comparison of areas in
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EXERCISE 5.15Stratovolcano Disaster
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 5Exploring the Na
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IGNEOUS ROCKS STUDY SHEET NameSampl
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FIGURE 6.2 Chemical weathering of f
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FIGURE 6.3 The five steps in clasti
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6.3.2 Chemical Sedimentary RocksChe
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6.3.3 Biochemical and Organic Sedim
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TABLE 6.2 Classification of common
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FIGURE 6.5 Flow chart for identifyi
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FIGURE 6.6 Sediment sorting.(a) Poo
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EXERCISE 6.7Recognizing Sediment De
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FIGURE 6.9 Sedimentary rock beds.(a
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FIGURE 6.12 Cross bedding, a type o
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FIGURE 6.15 Fossils reveal remarkab
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FIGURE 6.16 Examples of depositiona
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EXERCISE 6.10Interpreting Sedimenta
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SampleTexture(grain size, shape,sor
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FIGURE 7.1 Examples of changes from
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FIGURE 7.2 Growth of metamorphic mi
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FIGURE 7.3 Types of stress.(a) Comp
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FIGURE 7.5 Photomicrographs of rock
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FIGURE 7.6 Varieties of gneiss form
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EXERCISE 7.2Identifying Metamorphic
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FIGURE 7.11 Settings of metamorphis
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EXERCISE 7.4Interpreting the Type o
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EXERCISE 7.5Name:Course:Index Miner
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Sample Minerals presentMETAMORPHIC
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Sample Minerals presentMETAMORPHIC
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EXERCISE 8.1Which Image Works Best?
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More sophisticated grid systems are
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EXERCISE 8.2The Latitude/Longitude
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EXERCISE 8.3Locating Points with th
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EXERCISE 8.4Locating Points with th
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But which north is north? No, this
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e300FIGURE 8.10 An area in eastern
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8.4 Vertical Exaggeration:A Matter
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 8Locating Places
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Understand ho
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this information on the most recent
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FIGURE 9.5 Digital elevation model(
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250300300FIGURE 9.7 Hachured contou
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9.3.4 Rules and Applications of Con
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EXERCISE 9.6Name:Course:Survival of
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FIGURE 9.8 Map of the microwave tow
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FIGURE 9.11 The effect of vertical
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 9Working with Top
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APPENDIX 9.1Topographic Map Symbols
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Interpreting GeologicStructures on
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of structures on the ground (the ma
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EXERCISE 10.2The Basic Types of Con
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EXERCISE 10.3Determining Strike and
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FIGURE 10.4 Block diagrams.Map view
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FIGURE 10.6 Block diagrams showing
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FIGURE 10.7 Hanging wall, footwall,
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is not the same as that of the beds
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EXERCISE 10.9Name:Course:Interpreti
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FIGURE 10.9 Geologic maps (continue
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EXERCISE 10.11Name:Course:Using Sym
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Page 288 and 289: EXERCISE 10.18Making a Geologic Map
Page 290: GEOTOURS EXERCISE 10Name:Course:Und
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Page 295 and 296: S-waves (FIG. 11.2b) are seismic wa
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Page 301 and 302: EXERCISE 11.4Name:Course:Locating a
Page 303 and 304: EXERCISE 11.4Locating an Earthquake
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Page 307 and 308: EXERCISE 11.5Name:Course:Determinin
Page 309 and 310: 11.5 Predicting EarthquakeHazards:
Page 311 and 312: EXERCISE 11.7Locating Liquefaction
Page 313 and 314: After watching dramatic images of t
Page 315 and 316: APPENDIX 11.1Seismic Analysis Works
Page 317 and 318: LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Determine t
Page 319 and 320: EXERCISE 12.2Relative Ages in Cross
Page 321 and 322: EXERCISE 12.3Applying the Principle
Page 323 and 324: EXERCISE 12.4Name:Course:Using Sedi
Page 325 and 326: FIGURE 12.6 How the three kinds of
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Page 333 and 334: FIGURE 12.9 Changing parent:daughte
Page 335 and 336: EXERCISE 12.7Putting It All Togethe
Page 337 and 338: EXERCISE 12.8What Numerical Ages Ca
Page 339 and 340: EXERCISE 12.9Correlation (continued
Page 341 and 342: EXERCISE 12.10Cretaceous Paleogeogr
Page 344 and 345: Landscapes Formed13by StreamsStream
Page 346 and 347: EXERCISE 13.1Differences between St
Page 348 and 349: EXERCISE 13.2Why Some Streams Meand
Page 350 and 351: RFIGURE 13.5 The Genesee River sout
Page 352 and 353: EXERCISE 13.2Why Some Streams Meand
Page 354 and 355: FIGURE 13.8 A floodplain and its as
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Page 360 and 361: FIGURE 13.13 Major drainage basins
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Page 364 and 365: EXERCISE 13.6Recognizing Stages of
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Page 368 and 369: 13.7 When Streams Don’t Seemto Fo
Page 370 and 371: EXERCISE 13.7Deducing the History o
Page 372 and 373: 13.8 When There’s Too Much Water:
Page 374 and 375: EXERCISE 13.9Estimating Potential F
Page 376 and 377: 13.9 Streams, Society, and the Envi
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Groundwater as aLandscape Formerand
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EXERCISE 14.1Factors Affecting Infi
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EXERCISE 14.1Name:Course:Factors Af
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FIGURE 14.2 Groundwater landscape e
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60075000750600FIGURE 14.4 Karst top
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FIGURE 14.5 The water table separat
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EXERCISE 14.4Effects of a Changing
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100100100FIGURE 14.9 Karst topograp
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4400B a l d r i d g e C a n y o n42
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EXERCISE 14.7Name:Course:Environmen
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EXERCISE 14.8Name:Course:Environmen
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Glacial Landscapes15These jagged mo
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FIGURE 15.2 Mountain and continenta
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EXERCISE 15.1Comparison of Glaciers
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EXERCISE 15.3Erosional Features of
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15.3.2 Depositional LandscapesLands
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EXERCISE 15.4Landforms at the Termi
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900900800BOWEN1000700C R E E K900RO
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450400LEMON400ROADSLAYTON4504503Spo
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15.4 Landscapes Producedby Mountain
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The base level for a tributary stre
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3700380036003900Northwest BasinLake
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FIGURE 15.17 Atmospheric temperatur
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 15Flowing Ice as
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GRID: 10/inch = 39,4/10cm
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Processes and Landforms16in Arid En
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FIGURE 16.2 Types of arid regions.(
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16.2 Processes in Arid RegionsNow l
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16.3 Progressive Evolution of Arid
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EXERCISE 16.3Interpreting Arid Land
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EXERCISE 16.3Interpreting Arid Land
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RiverGila85WatermanWashR A I N B O
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85130011001000FIGURE 16.8 Topograph
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FIGURE 16.10 Characteristics and ev
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400040004000L o w e V a l l e y4100
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FIGURE 16.13 Vulnerability to deser
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Shoreline Landscapes17Coastlines co
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FIGURE 17.1 Types of shorelines.(a)
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EXERCISE 17.1Erodibility and Stabil
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17.2.5 Emergent and Submergent Shor
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1382427FIGURE 17.5 Maine coastline
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EXERCISE 17.5Measuring Sea-Level (a
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FIGURE 17.7 Area just south of Lake
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17.3.2 Coastal Erosion and Depositi
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FIGURE 17.11 Erosional features of
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EXERCISE 17.7Erosional Processes an
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17.3.5 Depositional FeaturesPromine
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EXERCISE 17.9Depositional Processes
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FIGURE 17.18 The shoreline of theno
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FIGURE 17.21 Aerial view showing ho
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EXERCISE 17.10Name:Course:Unintende
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FIGURE 17.24 Counterclockwise wind
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EXERCISE 17.11Name:Course:Effects o
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FIGURE 17.27 Flooding caused by hur
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EXERCISE 17.12Effects of Storm Path
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 17Understanding T
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Explain why p
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EXERCISE 18.1Humans and Earth Syste
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EXERCISE 18.2Short-Term Changes in
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Weather describes atmospheric condi
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FIGURE 18.5 The greenhouse effect.G
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EXERCISE 18.3Name:Course:Assessing
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FIGURE 18.8 Movement of water from
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FIGURE 18.10 Projected sea-level sc
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EXERCISE 18.4Effects of Sea-Level R
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FIGURE 18.13 Estimated human popula
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FIGURE 18.14 Two bird species hunte
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EXERCISE 18.6Name:Course:How Quickl
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 18Inducing Change
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Courtesy of Allan Ludman; p. 162 (t
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270 280260240 250290 300Clay310 320
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Align with northern latitude tick m
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