Laboratory Manual for Introductory Geology 4e

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6.5.4 Cements in Clastic RocksThe most common cements in clastic sedimentary rocks are quartz and calcitebecause the ions needed to make these minerals can occur in relatively high concentrationsin the groundwater from which cements precipitate. Which of theseminerals is the dominant component of the cement depends on the source of thegroundwater and on the chemical environment in which precipitation takes place.In some cases, the cement that holds clasts together provides a clue to the depositionalenvironment. For example, the formation of hematite requires oxygen, so sedimentaryrocks cemented by hematite, which therefore have a reddish color, come fromenvironments where water contained dissolved oxygen. In contrast, sedimentary rockswith cement containing pyrite must have formed in anoxic (oxygen-free) environments,because if oxygen had been present, the pyrite would have dissolved. Reddishsedimentary rocks, or redbeds, generally indicate deposition in terrestrial environments(e.g., rivers, alluvial fans). You can practice cement identification in Exercise 6.8.EXERCISE 6.8Identifying CementsName:Course:Section:Date:How can you tell what minerals occur in a cement? Simply remember the basic physical properties of the minerals (e.g.,hardness, the ability to react with HCl, color). With these properties in mind, answer the following questions concerningsandstone, a type of sedimentary rock consisting of cemented-together grains of quartz sand.(a) The cement (but not the grains) in the sandstone reacts when in contact with dilute HCl. The cement consists of.(b) The sandstone, overall, has a reddish color. The cement contains .(c) The cement is very strong, and when scratched with a steel needle it has the same hardness as the grains. Thecement consists of .6.6 Sedimentary Structures:Clues to Ancient Environments6.6.1 Beds and StratificationGravity causes all sediment to settle to the floor of the basin in which it was deposited.Over time, layers of sediment, called beds, accumulate. Beds are the most basicsedimentary structure, each bed representing a single depositional event. The differentcolors, grain sizes, and types of sediment from each event distinguish onebed from another (FIG. 6.9). Beds range from a millimeter to several meters thick,depending on the depositional process involved.Many beds are fairly homogeneous, with uniform color, mineralogy, and texture,and their surfaces (called bedding planes) are smooth. But some contain internalvariations or have distinct features on their surfaces. These other sedimentary structuresprovide important information about the rock’s history. Next, we look at a fewexamples of sedimentary structures and the history they record.6.6.2 Sedimentary Structures6.6.2a Graded Beds Graded beds are layers in which the grain size decreasesprogressively from the bottom to the top (FIG. 6.10). These beds form during a6.6 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES: CLUES TO ANCIENT ENVIRONMENTS161
FIGURE 6.9 Sedimentary rock beds.(a) Horizontal beds of sandstone and siltstone in the Painted Desert of Arizona. White, dark red, and light red bedscontain different amounts of hematite cement.(b) Horizontal beds of sandstones, siltstones, and limestones in the Grand Canyon in Arizona. Beds aredistinguished by differential resistance to weathering as well as color.submarine avalanche when poorly sorted sediment speeds down a submarine slope.When the avalanche, called a turbidity current, slows, the coarsest grains settle first,whereas the finer materials remain in suspension longer. Over time, the finer sedimentssettle, and the finest ones settle last. To make a graded bed in the lab, putFIGURE 6.10 Graded bedding.TopTop of bedBottomSilt- and mud-sized clastsFine sand-sized clastsPebble- and granule-sizedclastsBottom of bed162 CHAPTER 6 USING SEDIMENTARY ROCKS TO INTERPRET EARTH HISTORY
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LABORATORY MANUALFOR INTRODUCTORY G
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CONTENTSPreface viiCHAPTER 1Setting
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CHAPTER 8Studying the Earth’s Lan
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PREFACEThis laboratory manual is ba
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exercises interspersed throughout t
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Supplements(available for download
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ABOUT THE AUTHORSAllan Ludman is Pr
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Understand ch
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One way to obtain more data would b
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TABLE 1.1 Basic definitions●●
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EXERCISE 1.2Reservoirs in the Earth
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EXERCISE 1.4Sources of Heat for Geo
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1.3 Units for Geologic MeasurementB
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FIGURE 1.5 Measuring the volume of
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FIGURE 1.6 The white cliffs of Dove
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MileFIGURE 1.7 Methods for dealing
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FIGURE 1.8 An example of the princi
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EXERCISE 1.9Name:Course:How Long Do
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APPENDIX 1.1Metric-U.S. Customary C
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Become fami
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plate between two continents, conti
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FIGURE 2.4 The Earth’s major clim
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More clues soon came from seismolog
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FIGURE 2.8 Magnetic reversals of th
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FIGURE 2.11 Rates of motion of the
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EXERCISE 2.7A Tale of Two RidgesNam
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EXERCISE 2.8Continental Rifting: Sp
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Even without any earthquake informa
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EXERCISE 2.10Estimating the Amount
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2.5.5 Hot Spots and Hot-Spot Tracks
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EXERCISE 2.11Name:Course:Determinin
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EXERCISE 2.12Name:Course:Long-Term
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 2Analyzing Plate
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Understand wh
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When a mineral grows without interf
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FIGURE 3.1 Specimens of the mineral
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3.4.5 HardnessThe hardness of a min
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FIGURE 3.4 Crystals of some common
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FIGURE 3.6 Cleavage in common miner
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3.4.9 MagnetismA few minerals are a
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EXERCISE 3.7Identifying MineralsNam
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The minerals and elements we most r
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EXERCISE 3.9Mineral Resources in Yo
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 3Extracting Miner
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APPENDIX 3.1Mineral Identification
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APPENDIX 3.2Determinative Tables fo
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APPENDIX 3.2Determinative Tables fo
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APPENDIX 3.3Common Minerals and The
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MINERAL PROFILE DATA SHEET NameSamp
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Understand
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FIGURE 4.1 The rock cycle.Heating a
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FIGURE 4.3 Typical grain shapes.(a)
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EXERCISE 4.2Describing a Rock’s T
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EXERCISE 4.3Understanding the Origi
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EXERCISE 4.4Interpreting the Textur
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■ Hardness: Use a steel safety pi
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FIGURE 4.6 Flowchart for determinin
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4.8 The Economic Value of RocksMost
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FIGURE 4.7 Examples of igneous, sed
Page 125 and 126: GEOTOURS EXERCISE 4Deciphering Land
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Page 129 and 130: crystalline rocks. Those that are s
Page 131 and 132: EXERCISE 5.3Interpreting Igneous Co
Page 133 and 134: FIGURE 5.4 Volcanic glasscontains n
Page 135 and 136: EXERCISE 5.5Interpreting Fragmental
Page 137 and 138: Felsic igneous rocks (from feldspar
Page 139 and 140: minerals melt, and (3) how plate-te
Page 141 and 142: EXERCISE 5.8Insights from Melting a
Page 143 and 144: EXERCISE 5.9Explaining Features of
Page 145 and 146: extreme crustal stretching has expo
Page 147 and 148: EXERCISE 5.13Interpreting Plate-Tec
Page 149 and 150: FIGURE 5.12 Distribution of volcano
Page 151 and 152: FIGURE 5.14 Comparison of areas in
Page 153 and 154: EXERCISE 5.15Stratovolcano Disaster
Page 155 and 156: GEOTOURS EXERCISE 5Exploring the Na
Page 157 and 158: IGNEOUS ROCKS STUDY SHEET NameSampl
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Page 161 and 162: FIGURE 6.2 Chemical weathering of f
Page 163 and 164: FIGURE 6.3 The five steps in clasti
Page 165 and 166: 6.3.2 Chemical Sedimentary RocksChe
Page 167 and 168: 6.3.3 Biochemical and Organic Sedim
Page 169 and 170: TABLE 6.2 Classification of common
Page 171 and 172: FIGURE 6.5 Flow chart for identifyi
Page 173 and 174: FIGURE 6.6 Sediment sorting.(a) Poo
Page 175: EXERCISE 6.7Recognizing Sediment De
Page 179 and 180: FIGURE 6.12 Cross bedding, a type o
Page 181 and 182: FIGURE 6.15 Fossils reveal remarkab
Page 183 and 184: FIGURE 6.16 Examples of depositiona
Page 185 and 186: EXERCISE 6.10Interpreting Sedimenta
Page 187 and 188: SampleTexture(grain size, shape,sor
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Page 191 and 192: FIGURE 7.1 Examples of changes from
Page 193 and 194: FIGURE 7.2 Growth of metamorphic mi
Page 195 and 196: FIGURE 7.3 Types of stress.(a) Comp
Page 197 and 198: FIGURE 7.5 Photomicrographs of rock
Page 199 and 200: FIGURE 7.6 Varieties of gneiss form
Page 201 and 202: EXERCISE 7.2Identifying Metamorphic
Page 203 and 204: FIGURE 7.11 Settings of metamorphis
Page 205 and 206: EXERCISE 7.4Interpreting the Type o
Page 207 and 208: EXERCISE 7.5Name:Course:Index Miner
Page 209 and 210: Sample Minerals presentMETAMORPHIC
Page 211 and 212: Sample Minerals presentMETAMORPHIC
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Page 215 and 216: EXERCISE 8.1Which Image Works Best?
Page 217 and 218: More sophisticated grid systems are
Page 219 and 220: EXERCISE 8.2The Latitude/Longitude
Page 221 and 222: EXERCISE 8.3Locating Points with th
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Page 225 and 226: But which north is north? No, this
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e300FIGURE 8.10 An area in eastern
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8.4 Vertical Exaggeration:A Matter
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 8Locating Places
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Understand ho
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this information on the most recent
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FIGURE 9.5 Digital elevation model(
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250300300FIGURE 9.7 Hachured contou
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9.3.4 Rules and Applications of Con
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EXERCISE 9.6Name:Course:Survival of
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FIGURE 9.8 Map of the microwave tow
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FIGURE 9.11 The effect of vertical
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 9Working with Top
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APPENDIX 9.1Topographic Map Symbols
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Interpreting GeologicStructures on
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of structures on the ground (the ma
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EXERCISE 10.2The Basic Types of Con
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EXERCISE 10.3Determining Strike and
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FIGURE 10.4 Block diagrams.Map view
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FIGURE 10.6 Block diagrams showing
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FIGURE 10.7 Hanging wall, footwall,
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is not the same as that of the beds
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EXERCISE 10.9Name:Course:Interpreti
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FIGURE 10.9 Geologic maps (continue
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EXERCISE 10.11Name:Course:Using Sym
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EXERCISE 10.12Name:Course:Construct
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EXERCISE 10.13Interpreting Simple G
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FIGURE 10.13 Structural control of
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10.6 Reading Real Geologic MapsYou
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FIGURE 10.14 (continued).Geologic M
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EXERCISE 10.18Making a Geologic Map
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 10Name:Course:Und
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Understand
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S-waves (FIG. 11.2b) are seismic wa
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FIGURE 11.4 Worldwide distribution
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FIGURE 11.5 Travel-time curves show
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EXERCISE 11.4Name:Course:Locating a
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EXERCISE 11.4Locating an Earthquake
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EXERCISE 11.4Name:Course:Locating a
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EXERCISE 11.5Name:Course:Determinin
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11.5 Predicting EarthquakeHazards:
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EXERCISE 11.7Locating Liquefaction
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After watching dramatic images of t
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APPENDIX 11.1Seismic Analysis Works
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■■Determine t
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EXERCISE 12.2Relative Ages in Cross
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EXERCISE 12.3Applying the Principle
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EXERCISE 12.4Name:Course:Using Sedi
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FIGURE 12.6 How the three kinds of
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EXERCISE 12.5Name:Course:Decipherin
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becoming extinct. When we find an i
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EXERCISE 12.6Name:Course:Dating Roc
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FIGURE 12.9 Changing parent:daughte
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EXERCISE 12.7Putting It All Togethe
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EXERCISE 12.8What Numerical Ages Ca
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EXERCISE 12.9Correlation (continued
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EXERCISE 12.10Cretaceous Paleogeogr
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Landscapes Formed13by StreamsStream
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EXERCISE 13.1Differences between St
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EXERCISE 13.2Why Some Streams Meand
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RFIGURE 13.5 The Genesee River sout
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EXERCISE 13.2Why Some Streams Meand
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FIGURE 13.8 A floodplain and its as
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ST. FRANCIS CO4070797064UNION PACIF
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1000Big900900B I G H I L LARKANSAS9
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FIGURE 13.13 Major drainage basins
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anchWTJ54MurphyNew BloomfieldTown65
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EXERCISE 13.6Recognizing Stages of
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MT T L E62446267DogRock757266170634
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13.7 When Streams Don’t Seemto Fo
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EXERCISE 13.7Deducing the History o
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13.8 When There’s Too Much Water:
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EXERCISE 13.9Estimating Potential F
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13.9 Streams, Society, and the Envi
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Groundwater as aLandscape Formerand
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EXERCISE 14.1Factors Affecting Infi
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EXERCISE 14.1Name:Course:Factors Af
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FIGURE 14.2 Groundwater landscape e
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60075000750600FIGURE 14.4 Karst top
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FIGURE 14.5 The water table separat
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EXERCISE 14.4Effects of a Changing
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100100100FIGURE 14.9 Karst topograp
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4400B a l d r i d g e C a n y o n42
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EXERCISE 14.7Name:Course:Environmen
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EXERCISE 14.8Name:Course:Environmen
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Glacial Landscapes15These jagged mo
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FIGURE 15.2 Mountain and continenta
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EXERCISE 15.1Comparison of Glaciers
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EXERCISE 15.3Erosional Features of
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15.3.2 Depositional LandscapesLands
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EXERCISE 15.4Landforms at the Termi
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900900800BOWEN1000700C R E E K900RO
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450400LEMON400ROADSLAYTON4504503Spo
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15.4 Landscapes Producedby Mountain
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The base level for a tributary stre
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3700380036003900Northwest BasinLake
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FIGURE 15.17 Atmospheric temperatur
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 15Flowing Ice as
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GRID: 10/inch = 39,4/10cm
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Processes and Landforms16in Arid En
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FIGURE 16.2 Types of arid regions.(
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16.2 Processes in Arid RegionsNow l
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16.3 Progressive Evolution of Arid
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EXERCISE 16.3Interpreting Arid Land
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EXERCISE 16.3Interpreting Arid Land
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RiverGila85WatermanWashR A I N B O
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85130011001000FIGURE 16.8 Topograph
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FIGURE 16.10 Characteristics and ev
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400040004000L o w e V a l l e y4100
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FIGURE 16.13 Vulnerability to deser
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Shoreline Landscapes17Coastlines co
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FIGURE 17.1 Types of shorelines.(a)
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EXERCISE 17.1Erodibility and Stabil
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17.2.5 Emergent and Submergent Shor
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1382427FIGURE 17.5 Maine coastline
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EXERCISE 17.5Measuring Sea-Level (a
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FIGURE 17.7 Area just south of Lake
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17.3.2 Coastal Erosion and Depositi
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FIGURE 17.11 Erosional features of
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EXERCISE 17.7Erosional Processes an
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17.3.5 Depositional FeaturesPromine
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EXERCISE 17.9Depositional Processes
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FIGURE 17.18 The shoreline of theno
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FIGURE 17.21 Aerial view showing ho
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EXERCISE 17.10Name:Course:Unintende
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FIGURE 17.24 Counterclockwise wind
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EXERCISE 17.11Name:Course:Effects o
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FIGURE 17.27 Flooding caused by hur
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EXERCISE 17.12Effects of Storm Path
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 17Understanding T
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LEARNINGOBJECTIVES■ Explain why p
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EXERCISE 18.1Humans and Earth Syste
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EXERCISE 18.2Short-Term Changes in
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Weather describes atmospheric condi
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FIGURE 18.5 The greenhouse effect.G
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EXERCISE 18.3Name:Course:Assessing
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FIGURE 18.8 Movement of water from
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FIGURE 18.10 Projected sea-level sc
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EXERCISE 18.4Effects of Sea-Level R
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FIGURE 18.13 Estimated human popula
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FIGURE 18.14 Two bird species hunte
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EXERCISE 18.6Name:Course:How Quickl
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GEOTOURS EXERCISE 18Inducing Change
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Courtesy of Allan Ludman; p. 162 (t
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270 280260240 250290 300Clay310 320
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Align with northern latitude tick m
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