2012 COURSE DATES: AUGUST 4 – 17, 2012 - Sirenian International

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MIKSIS-OLDS ET AL.: SIMULATED VESSEL APPROACHES 645 retreat from a possible PWC collision. An alternative explanation is that the sharp rise time associated with the PWC approach elicits a startle response that causes manatees to retreat from the sound source without evoking a higher level of cognitive analysis. Avoidance responses to the short rise time signals have also been observed in sharks. Myrberg et al. (1978) reported that a silky shark (Carcharhinus falciformis) withdrew 10 m from a speaker broadcasting a 150–600-Hz sound with a sudden onset and a peak sound pressure level of 154 dB re 1 Pa. These sharks also avoided a pulsed attractive sound when its sound level was abruptly increased by >20 dB. Finally, through prior encounters with PWCs, manatees may have learned to associate the PWC acoustic signal with vessels that are less predictable and more likely to approach them in shallow areas, thus requiring a more extreme response. Regardless of the specific acoustic characteristic of the fast vessel approaches that elicit fast swim responses, these signals cause manatees to increase their swim speed. Swim speed, as well as breathing rates and heart rate, have been used to estimate the energies of free-ranging marine mammals (Sumich 1983, Kshatriya and Blake 1988, Williams et al. 1992, Hind and Gurney 1997). Assuming that manatees respond at maximum speeds and that the maximum aerobic energy used during locomotion can reach 4–11 times resting levels in marine mammals (Elsner 1986, Williams et al. 1993), consistent responses to vessel approaches potentially affect the energy budget of manatees in a significant way. Responses detected in this study are consistent with an energy cost, and future work quantifying energy expenditures will determine whether multiple reactions could have a long-term effect at the individual or population level. Most playback experiments measure movement, visual, or vocal responses to the sound played. Behaviors most typically measured are orientation or movement relative to the sound source, vocalizations made in response to the playback, and previously defined behaviors or displays such as aggressive or sexual displays. Less frequently used, but possibly more objective, responses are changes in heart rate (birds: Davis [1986], Diehl [1992]; humans: Brown et al. [1976]; chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes: Berntson and Boysen [1989]; bottlenose dolphins: Miksis et al. [2001]) and hormone levels (Dufty 1982). Neither quantitative swim speed nor fluke rate or amplitude was measurable in this study. More accurate measurements of both swimming characteristics and physiological responses during playback responses are necessary in order to determine the degree to which repeated exposure to vessel approaches are affecting the manatee energy budget or stress levels. Technological advances in tag construction and measurement sensors may soon allow for the recording of these critical parameters (Johnson and Tyack 2003). In summary, the playback technique presented here permits the investigation of numerous questions associated with manatee disturbance, threshold level, etc. without the risk of injury associated with the unpredictable behavior of wild animals during directed vessel approaches. This methodology has identified that vessel approaches, especially by PWCs and fast approaching watercraft, are a cause of manatee disturbance. This may be of regulatory concern, as harassment is prohibited in the Unites States by the Marine Mammal Protection Act. Manatees were also shown to hear and respond to boats approaching at idle speeds. Much more information is needed to determine how to minimize this disturbance in order to meet the criteria for species downlisting as outlined in the Florida Manatee Recovery Plan (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2003). For example, the measured responses in this study were
646 MARINE MAMMAL SCIENCE, VOL. 23, NO. 3, 2007 only made during feeding and resting behaviors in grass bed habitats. Behavioral state and habitat type may have significant impacts on the motivation to react, and responses in other behavioral contexts (e.g., actively socializing) and habitats should be investigated. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The success of this project would not have been possible without the help of numerous people. The interns and staff in the Manatee Research Program at Mote Marine Laboratory were critical to the field efforts. Special thanks are extended to Doug Nowacek for his input on initial project design. Thanks are also extended to Gretchen Hurst, Joe Gaspard, and Marie Chapla for their help with stimulus recordings. All playbacks were conducted under the guidelines of U.S. Fish and Wildlife permit MA071799-0 issued to Jennifer Miksis and comply with all current laws of the country. This project was funded by a National Defense for Science and Engineering Graduate (NDSEG) Fellowship, P.E.O. Scholar Award, and American Association for University Women (AAUW) Dissertation Writing Fellowship awarded to Jennifer Miksis. LITERATURE CITED ACKERMAN, B.B.,S. D. WRIGHT, R.K.BONDE, D.K.ODELL and D. J. BANOWETZ. 1995. Trends and patterns in mortality of manatees in Florida. Pages 1974–1992 in T. J. O’Shea, B. B. Ackerman and H. F. Percival, eds. Population biology of the Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris). National Biological Service, Information and Technical Report 1. Washington, DC. BEJDER, L., S. DAWSON AND J. A. HARRAWAY. 1999. Responses by Hector’s dolphins to boats and swimmers in Porpoise Bay, New Zealand. Marine Mammal Science 15:738– 750. BENGTSON,J.L.,AND S. M. FITZGERALD. 1985. Potential role of vocalizations in West Indian manatees. Journal of Mammalogy 66:816–819. BERNTSON,G.G.,AND S. T. BOYSEN. 1989. Specificity of the cardiac response to conspecific vocalizations in chimpanzees. Behavioral Neuroscience 103:235–243. BROWN, J.W.,P.A.MORSE, L.A.LEAVITT AND F. K. GRAHAM. 1976. Specific attentional effects reflected in the cardiac orienting response. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 7:1–4. BUCKINGHAM,C.A.,L. W. LEFEBVRE,J.M.SCHAEFER AND H. I. KOCHMAN. 1999. Manatee response to boating activity in a thermal refuge. Wildlife Society Bulletin 27:514–522. BUCKSTAFF, K.C.2004. Effects of watercraft noise on the acoustic behavior of bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, inSarasota Bay, Florida. Marine Mammal Science 20:709– 725. CULIK,B.M.,D. ADELUNG AND A. J. WOAKES. 1990. Effects of disturbance on the heart rate and behavior of Adelie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) during the breeding season. Pages 177–282 in K. R. Kerry and G. HEMPEL, eds. Antarctic ecosystems. Ecological change and conservation. Springer, New York, NY. DAVIS,W.J.1986. Acoustic recognition in the belted kingfisher: Cardiac responses to playback vocalizations. Condor 88:505–512. DIEHL, P.1992. Radiotelemetric measurements of heart rate in singing blackbirds (Turdus merula). Ornithology 133:181–195. DUFTY,A.M.1982. Responses of brown-headed cowbirds to simulated conspecific intruders. Animal Behaviour 30:1043–1052. ELSNER,R.1986. Limits to exercise performance: Some ideas from comparative studies. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 128:45–51. FAY, F.H.,B. P. KELLY, P.H.GEHNRICH, J.L.SEASE AND A. A. HOOVER. 1984. Modern populations, migrations, demography, trophics, and historical status of the Pacific walrus.
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ECOLOGY, BEHAVIOR & CONSERVATION OF
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discomfort without proper protectio
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ABOUT BELIZE Research Site: The pro
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FIELD TRAINING AND ASSIGNMENTS Duri
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ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS SBCRC is s
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HEALTH INFORMATION Routine Immuniza
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• Consult the CDC for immunizatio
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Oil or oil-based repellant (e.g. ol
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Ecology, Behavior, and Conservation
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MINIMUM / MAXIMUM CLASS SIZE: 6-24
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COURSE FEE & ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
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Ecology, Behavior & Conservation of
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2012 Field Course Policy & Liabilit
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2012 Field Course Policy & Liabilit
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FIELD JOURNALS You are required to
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OUR INVESTIGATION Figure 2. G. crut
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OUR INVESTIGATION Introduction The
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OUR INVESTIGATION Introduction On a
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OUR INVESTIGATION Introduction We f
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OUR RESEARCH FINDINGS Introduction
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area on the north part of the islan
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Introduction Our Investigation Befo
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Introduction Sea stars have long be
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INVESTIGATION Introduction Retracti
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Introduction Shells serve as a limi
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Introduction Lunar reproductive rhy
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TRIP SUMMARY SHEET (page 1) Day of
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RECORD OF EFFORT DATA SHEET Event (
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MANATEE SIGHTINGS AND SCANS Page 2
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Date: Page 2 of ____ Sight/Scan Rec
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Sighting Log Continued from Page 1
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2010 VT: Scholar, BANNER, Safe Zone
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presentation to Horn Point Environm
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• Developed and managed education
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LaCommare, Katherine S. November 20
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• Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy,
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B. Ouranos, C. Bursey, and H. Kalb.
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2006. Holy Redeemer Day Camp. Conta
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18 NEWS AND VIEWS By 1995, in respo
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Social Interactions in Captive Fema
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Captive Female Manatee Social Behav
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ut not random. Behaviors were not o
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Community Structure, Population Con
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422 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST the pla
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424 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST sarily
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Environmental Conservation 29 (2):
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194 C.M. Duarte well as more recent
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196 C.M. Duarte atmospheric inputs
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198 C.M. Duarte development (Short
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202 C.M. Duarte detecting losses of
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204 C.M. Duarte Coles, R. & Fortes,
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206 C.M. Duarte Ramos-Esplá, A., M
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$1.2 million (Moore et al. 2009a).
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and positively related to knowledge
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student’s ability to learn facts
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Conservation and Behaviour Richard
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animals may adopt microhabitat choi
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and minimize traffic-induced wildli
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decision rules they use in response
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Gagnon JW, Theimer TC, Dodd NL, Boe
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402 Opinion TRENDS in Ecology and E
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Anim Cogn (2009) 12:43-53 DOI 10.10
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Anim Cogn (2009) 12:43-53 47 Table
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Anim Cogn (2009) 12:43-53 49 Table
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Anim Cogn (2009) 12:43-53 53 L, Rei
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(Halodule wrightii and Syringodium
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Diurnal and Nocturnal Scans Four of
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Figure 3. The number of scans (whit
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in 2006. Although this difference i
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manatus in Costa Rica. Biological C
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574 D. J. Semeyn et al. and natural
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580 D. J. Semeyn et al. Fig. 4 Kern
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582 D. J. Semeyn et al. biologists
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Intraspecific and geographic variat
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III. RESULTS Manatees in Florida an
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Genetica (2011) 139:833-842 DOI 10.
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Genetica (2011) 139:833-842 835 dur
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Genetica (2011) 139:833-842 837 Tab
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Genetica (2011) 139:833-842 839 Man
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Genetica (2011) 139:833-842 841 edu
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Fish Sci (2011) 77:795-798 DOI 10.1
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Fish Sci (2011) 77:795-798 797 was
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Low genetic variation and evidence
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Reduced Belize manatee dispersal an
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and respond to human encounters by
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tourist vessels are present, and th
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that approach behaviour may be habi
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to structure almost completely the
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Journal of Zoology The lesser of tw
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E. M. Arraut et al. & Sparks, 1989)
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E. M. Arraut et al. Frequent cloud
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E. M. Arraut et al. rising-water we
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E. M. Arraut et al. (Link, 1795) an
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The Journal of Experimental Biology
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Fig. 1. Rescue locations of manatee
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The present study is the first to c
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Bearhop, S., Waldron, S., Votier, S
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Figure 1. Map of the Drowned Cayes
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a. b. c. Power Power Power 100 80 6
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