2012 COURSE DATES: AUGUST 4 – 17, 2012 - Sirenian International

decision rules they use in response to those stimuli. Differential
light preferences of target and non-target species may
also be useful in developing more selective fisheries
(Marchesan et al., 2005). See also: Reproductive Strategies
Ecotourism
Generally, ecotourism is thought to change wildlife behaviour,
but some studies have been able to link human disturbance
with positive effects on animal populations. for
example, the presence of bear viewing tours in British Columbia
temporarily displaces adult male brown bears
U. arctos, which in turn allows for females with cubs to
spend more time fishing and foraging due to the fact that
female bears appear to be less vigilant around humans than
adult males. The displacement of large males by the presence
of ecotourists is thought to create a temporal refuge
that enhances feeding opportunities for subordinate age/
sex classes (Nevin and Gilbert, 2005). More commonly investigators
conclude that human disturbance has a neutral
or only slightly negative effect on wildlife. Minimal reaction
to human observers occurs in eastern chimpanzees
(Pan troglodytes schweinfurthi) in the Kibale Forest,
Uganda, provided that tourists visit in small groups
(Johns, 1996). Magellanic penguins Spheniscus magellanicus
in Argentina show both behavioural and physiological
habituation to tourist visitation (Walker et al.,
2006). It is not known, however, if the ontogenetic habituation
of these penguins serves an adaptive function. What
if becoming tamer around humans puts penguins at greater
risk of ignoring other predators? Inter-specific comparisons
of stress responses to disturbance of penguin species
that evolved in the absence of native terrestrial predators,
such as the Galapagos penguin Spheniscus mendiculus (Figure
2), with those that show fearful reactions would be
helpful to predict the conservation consequences of expanding
ecotourism to additional penguin species. The
challenge of ecotourism has always been to combine the
demands of tourists with the needs of local populations and
the conservation of protected areas. Not all behavioural
change by animals visited by ecotourists is harmful to
population viability. Sustainable ecotourism requires that
conservationists minimize disturbance that impairs the
lifetime reproductive success of individual animals.
Crop raiding by elephants
Human–elephant conflict over crop raiding is a significant
threat to elephant conservation efforts in Africa and Asia.
In addition to imposing significant economic burdens on
humans that farm near elephant reserves, elephants may
harm or even kill humans who attempt to repel them.
Conservation behaviourists are attempting to properly understand
the proximate and ultimate factors that promote
crop raiding. The benefits of crop raiding to the elephants
are dependent on the proximity of natural habitats to the
crop fields, the timing of crop ripening and the spatial distribution
of wild forage items (Rode et al., 2006). Males
between the ages of 10 and 14 years and between the ages of
20 and 24 years are associated with crop raiding, potentially
due to three factors: social independence, risk tolerance
and male–male competition (Chiyo et al., 2005). In
addition to practical methods for preventing elephants
from reaching crop fields (such as trenches, electric fences
and grass buffers), behaviourists must develop management
techniques that co-opt male elephant strategies that
promote conflict with their human neighbours.
Pollution
Conservation and Behaviour
Figure 2 Sustainable ecotourism provides financial incentives to protect
natural areas. Conservation behaviour studies are needed to determine if
island species, such as this Galapagos penguin, habituate more easily to
human disturbance because they have evolved without terrestrial predators.
Photo courtesy of Clifford Ochs.
Human activities contaminate nearby animal habitats with
a wide range of pollutants that may interfere with the
communication systems of animal species. In the presence
of such information disruptors, organisms may fail to detect
important environmental cues required for the acquisition
of food, mates, habitats and predators. For example,
pesticides and heavy metals may interfere with antipredator
responses (Lu¨ rling and Scheffer, 2007). Excess
artificial light (light pollution) disrupts orientation cues in
hatchling marine turtles (Witherington, 1997) and other
nocturnally active wildlife. The nocturnal beach mouse is
unable to forage efficiently in areas illuminated by artificial
lights (Bird et al., 2004). Man-made noises, also serve as
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