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202 C.M. Duarte detecting losses of 10% or less, as well as to develop early warning indicators of decline. Repeated census of marked shoots in plots may allow such precision for some seagrass species (e.g. Short & Duarte 2001). Use of reconstruction techniques to assess past seagrass demography (cf. Duarte et al. 1994) in monitoring programmes has allowed assessment of local tendencies for decline or expansion and the examination of the overall demographic balance of very large seagrass ecosystems (Peterson & Fourqurean 2001). Yet, even an optimistic analysis clearly indicates that monitoring efforts cannot possibly encompass but a minimum (< 0.01%) fraction of the world’s seagrass extent, although the implementation of seagrass monitoring programmes has increased over the past decades. The information derived from individual monitoring efforts could, however, be used to derive knowledge of trends at larger spatial scales than that encompassed by the individual monitoring efforts if these were networked into a coherent programme. The implementation of coordinated monitoring networks at the national, regional and global scales would prove instrumental to diagnosis of the large-scale status and trends of seagrass ecosystems. Management practices to address problems affecting seagrass ecosystems once detected are also insufficiently developed, for management intervention often fails to revert an ongoing seagrass decline (e.g. Delgado et al. 1999). The easiest impacts to regulate are those pertaining to direct mechanical effects on seagrass ecosystems, as well as some improvement of seagrass health following regulation of anchoring in recreational areas (e.g. Cabrera National Park, Spain; N. Marbá, C.M. Duarte, M. Holmer, R. Martínez, G. Basterretxea, A. Orfila, A. Jordi & J. Tintoré, personal communication 2002). Impacts related to changes in water quality are, however, more difficult to alleviate, although some successes have been reported, such as the reversal of seagrass losses following wastewater treatment on the French Society - Improved education - Improved awareness Managerial - Monitoring programmes - Accurate maps - Impact prevention - Precautionary principle - Networking - Restoration - Legislation Mediterranean coast (Pergent-Martini & Pascualini 2000). Empirical (e.g. Duarte 1991b) aswell as mechanistic (e.g. Gallegos 1994) models relating water quality to seagrass cover have been developed, which can be used to build scenarios of the effectiveness of different management strategies to improve water quality, and have also led to the development of metrics based on seagrass performance to assess water quality (Dennison et al. 1993). Direct management intervention in the proximal, in addition to the ultimate, causes of seagrass decline may be possible, such as intervention on sediment processes. For instance, iron additions to carbonate sediments may help prevent oxygen consumption by sulphide oxidation, possibly alleviating seagrass stress from anoxic sediments with high sulphide concentrations (cf. Hemminga & Duarte 2000; Chambers et al. 2001). Such direct intervention practices, however, must be based on robust knowledge of the proximal causes of seagrass decline, which requires further research emphasizing experimental tests of mechanisms and predictive models. Transplanting techniques to restore seagrasses have had mixed success (Fonseca 1992; Kirkman 1992), however, seagrass transplantation is too costly to be implemented at a large scale, which is a particularly critical drawback provided the fact that the most important losses are expected in developing countries. Hence, even though nationwide mangrove afforestation programmes have been implemented in some developing countries such as Thailand (Aksornkoae 1993), similar initiatives for seagrass meadows are as yet not feasible. In addition, seagrass transplantation programmes often require damage to a donor population, thereby reducing the value of transplantation as a management option. The threats and stresses to seagrass ecosystems are so diverse that management practices are unlikely to be effective unless accompanied by changing public attitudes and awareness (Fig. 3). Hence, the mid- to long-term conservation of seagrass ecosystems must be based on an adequate education Improving seagrass ecosystems Scientific - Increased knowledge - Improved predictive capacity - Interdisciplinary approaches - Improved monitoring technologies - Efficient restoration and intervention techniques Figure 3 Cooperative elements required to prevent present trend towards seagrass decline and efficiently conserve seagrass ecosystems.
of the public as to the nature of seagrasses, the functions they perform in nature, and the services these functions provide to society, and on the formulation and dissemination of best management practices to conserve seagrass ecosystems, all of this based on solid, interdisciplinary understanding of seagrass ecology and how to manage the health of seagrass ecosystems (Fig. 3). Education campaigns must, therefore, occupy a prominent place on the agenda for the conservation of seagrass ecosystems (Kirkman & Kirkman 2000), mobilizing seagrass scientists, managers and environmental educators to convey effectively the importance of seagrass ecosystems and the threats to them. Public awareness alone cannot be effective unless accompanied by sufficient understanding of the causes of stress to seagrass, and how these are integrated at the different levels, from physiological to demographic and landscape scales, to yield responses to possible intervention alternatives. In addition, our capacity to predict seagrass recovery from stress must be developed in order to allow reliable forecasts to be issued. The future of seagrass ecosystems will be largely dictated, therefore, by the social and scientific responses to the challenges ahead. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writing of this paper was supported by the European Commission Managing and Monitoring of Seagrass Beds project (contract # EVK3-CT-2000-00044). I thank G. Kendrick and G. Harris for valuable discussion, J. Borum, D.I. Walker, J. Fourqurean and N.V.C. Polunin for valuable revisions. References Aksornkoae, S. (1993) Ecology and Management of Mangroves. Bangkok, Thailand: IUCN. Aragones, L. & Marsh, H. (2000) Impact of dugong grazing and turtle cropping on tropical seagrass communities. Pacific Conservation Biology 5: 277–288. Bach, S.S., Borum, J., Fortes, M.D. & Duarte, C.M. (1998) Species composition and plant performance of mixed seagrass beds along a siltation gradient at Cape Bolinao, the Philippines. Marine Ecology Progress Series 174: 247–256. Beer, S. & Koch, E. (1996) Photosynthesis of seagrasses vs. marine macroalgae in globally changing CO2 environments. Marine Ecology Progress Series 141: 199–204. Bethoux, J.P. & Copin-Montégut, G. (1986) Biological fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in the Mediterranean Sea. Limnology and Oceanography 31: 1353–8. Bijlsma, L., Ehler, C.N., Kelin, R.J.L., Kulshrestha, S.M., McLean, R.F., Mimumra, N., Nichols, R.J., Nurse, L.A., Pérez Nieto, H., Stakhiv, E.Z., Turner, K. & Warrick, R.A. (1996) Coastal zones and small islands. In: Climate Change 1995: Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change, ed. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, pp. 289–324. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Biliotti, A. & Abdelahad, N. (1990) Halophila stipulacea (Frossk.) Aschers. (Hydrocharticaeae): éspèce nouvelle pour l’Italie. Posidonia Newsletter 3: 23–26. Future of seagrass meadows 203 Borum, J. (1996) Shallow waters and land/sea boundaries. In: Eutrophication in Coastal Marine Ecosystems, ed. K. Richardson & B.B. Jorgensen, pp. 179–203. Washington DC, USA: American Geophysical Union. Borum, J. & Sand-Jensen, K. (1996) Is total primary production in shallow coastal marine waters stimulated by nitrogen loading? Oikos 76: 406–10. Boudouresque, C.F., Charbonel, E., Meinesz, A., Pergent, G., Pergent-Martini, C., Cadiou, G., Bertrandy, M.C., Foret, P., Ragazzi, M. & Rico-Raimondino, V. (2000) A monitoring network based on the seagrass Posidonia oceanica in the Northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Biologia Marina Mediterranea 7: 328–331. Brouns, J.J. (1994) Seagrasses and climate change. In: Impacts of Climate Change on Ecosystems and Species: Marine and Coastal Systems, ed. J.C. Pernetta, R. Leemans, D. Elder & S. Humphrey, pp. 59–71. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Bruun, P. (1962) Sea level rise as a cause of shore erosion. Journal Waterways Harbours Division, Proceedings American Society Civil Engineering 88: 117–130. Burt, L. (2001) Evolutionary stasis, contraints, and other terminology describing evolutionary patterns. Biologial Journal of the Linnean Society 72: 509–517. Cambridge, M.L. & McComb, A.J. (1984) The loss of seagrasses in Cockburn Sound, Western Australia. I. The time course and magnitude of seagrass decline in relation to industrial development. Aquatic Botany 24: 269–285. Cancemi, G., De Falco, G. & Pergent, G. (2000) Impact of a fish farming facility on a Posidonia oceanica meadow. Biologia Marina Mediterranea 7: 341–344. Carlson, P.R., Yabro, L.A. & Barber, T.R. (1994) Relationship of sediment sulfide to mortality of Thalassia testudinum in Florida Bay. Marine Science Bulletin 54: 733–746. Carter, R.W.G. (1988) Coastal Environments. London, UK: Academic Press. Cebrián, J. & Duarte, C.M. (1997) Patterns in leaf herbivory on seagrasses. Aquatic Botany 60: 67–82. Chambers, R.M., Fourqurean, J.W., Macko, S.A., Hoppenot, R. (2001) Biogeochemical effects of iron availability on primary producers in a shallow marine carbonate sediment. Limnology and Oceanography 46: 1278–1286. Chapin, F.S., III, Bloom, A.J., Field, C.B. & Waring, R.H. (1987) Plant responses to multiple environmental factors. BioScience 37: 49–87. Charpy-Roubaud, C. & Sournia, A. (1990) The comparative estimation of phytoplanktonic and microphytobenthic production in the oceans. Marine Microbial Food Webs 4: 31–57. Christiansen, C., Christoffersen, H., Dalsgaard, J. & Norberg, R. (1981) Coastal and nearshore changes correlated with die-back in eelgrass (Zostera marina L.). Sedimentary Geology 28: 163–73. Clarke, S.M. & Kirkman, H. (1989) Seagrass dynamics. In: Seagrasses: a Treatise on the Biology of Seagrasses with Special Reference to the Australian Region, ed. A.W.D. Larkum, A.J. McComb & S.A. Shepherd, pp. 304–34, Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier. Cloern, J.E. (2001) Our evolving conceptual model of the coastal eutrophication problem. Marine Ecology Progress Series 210: 223–253. Cole, J.J., Peierls, B.L., Caraco, N.F. & Pace, M.L. (1993) Nitrogen loading of rivers as a human-driven process. In: Humans as Components of Ecosystems. ed. M.J. McDowell & S.T.A. Rickett pp. 141–157. Springer-Verlag.
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ECOLOGY, BEHAVIOR & CONSERVATION OF
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discomfort without proper protectio
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Ecology, Behavior & Conservation of
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OUR INVESTIGATION Figure 2. G. crut
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Introduction Our Investigation Befo
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2010 VT: Scholar, BANNER, Safe Zone
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presentation to Horn Point Environm
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LaCommare, Katherine S. November 20
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2006. Holy Redeemer Day Camp. Conta
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during the summer months while othe
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polyandrous - often mating with sev
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in the summer. Chessie, a male Flor
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ecords indicate that manatees have
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Florida manatee. National Biologica
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parturition: the action or process
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direction, and (e) when ‘travelli
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male travelled at least as far as B
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NEWS OF THE WEEK MEETINGBRIEFS>> 10
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Functional Ecology 2008, 22, 284-28
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III. RESULTS Manatees in Florida an
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Genetica (2011) 139:833-842 DOI 10.
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The Journal of Experimental Biology
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Fig. 1. Rescue locations of manatee
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The present study is the first to c
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Figure 1. Map of the Drowned Cayes
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a. b. c. Power Power Power 100 80 6
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