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involved planned village land use. Before “betterment”, people in the Makgabeng area, lived in clustered homesteads, along the hills or ridges, with their fields near rivers and streams. They grazed cattle on hills and in forests, or further from home. With “betterment”, they were forcefully allocated new fields and new residential areas. The new land use system was inflexible in which people found themselves with smaller fields and gardens than before, and had to walk greater distances to fetch wood, water and thatching grass. That was accompanied by very unpopular stock-culling measures which triggered peasant resistance to “betterment” throughout the homelands. The land use system in the homelands was frozen by the abolition of those homelands when the new democratic order was ushered in the early 1990s. Land reform policies were put in place from 1994 by the new democratically elected government in an attempt to redress the previous imbalances, and the Makgabeng area was also affected by those changes. The homeland identity has never become a salient feature on most Black communities even if it was so vigorously imposed and promoted. It has never become more salient than the communal identity of villages. Communities in the Makgabeng area, for instance, still defined themselves according to their respective villages in which they lived. The homeland identity was even less salient than that of chieftaincy in which communities still defined themselves as the Matlala or Malebogo people, 290
ather than the citizens of Lebowa. This was partly because the level of the people’s awareness allowed them to suspect the NP homeland policies. This kind of imposed identity (Lebowa), which R. Jenkins refers to as “labelling” 510 , in this case generated resistance, hence the people such as those in Makgabeng regarded themselves less as Lebowans than the people of Matlala or Malebogo. CHAPTER 7 MIGRANT LABOUR, TRADE AND TECHNOLOGY IN MAKGABENG The origins of labour migrancy in Makgabeng In the previous chapter we saw how land, and all its implications, under various circumstances, led to the creation, shaping and even destruction of various forms of identities in the Makgabeng area. Another important aspect which also impacted on identities in that area was the migrant labour system. In this chapter, this phenomenon will be discussed in conjunction with its closely related aspects of trade and technology and how they 510 R. Jenkins, Social Identity, p. 22. 291
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO MAKGABENG
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There are very few written records
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said that Makgabeng means “people
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names after they were surveyed and
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This study aims to portray the hist
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In this study on identity creation
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emerging continental spirit of Pan-
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Related to this issue, is the triba
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In addition to the information of t
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in particular. These sources were u
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help to fill the gaps in documentar
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each and every approach, depending
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Like politicians, traditional leade
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conditions were not as favourable a
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with my informants and reassured th
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sent to the interviewees before the
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Within twenty-four hours of conduct
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Bahananwa and Bakone in Makgabeng a
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almost all the Black communities th
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interdisciplinary fields as cultura
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will be a weak identity 40 . People
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ule 46 . Castells sums up this seem
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information, cultures, commodities
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Identity creation through Afrocentr
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concept of centre encompasses both
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construct rational thought. Thus, t
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culture to the other cultures of th
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dependent on the nature of the cont
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contested, negotiable and construct
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others and are identified by them i
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shared identities can transcend obv
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in identities help individuals or g
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Another theoretical argument is tha
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cultural forms,… thus all identit
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environmental changes. Focus will b
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since the origin of humankind, its
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een interacting with one another in
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and 1200 metres 99 . It represents
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These names help people to define a
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C3-type grasses dominate 115 . The
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their homesteads 119 . In the Makga
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ange of wild animals indigenous to
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In addition to the contact between
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The above accounts indicate how the
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Early occupation. Archaeological ev
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San include “sympathetic magic”
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interacted with other groups, espec
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scale crisis between the San groups
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underground foods 147 . These consi
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population groups which later appea
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een any reports and evidence of “
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words, identities may be expressed
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cultural mixing and influencing, th
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As already alluded to, the Khoikhoi
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stock probably through their contac
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The Bantu-speaking communities. The
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speaking communities. Because of th
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is precisely because of the theoret
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Makgabeng area, even though the roy
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protection. The alignment of variou
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CHAPTER 4 POLITICAL CHANGES BROUGHT
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The earliest inhabitants in the Mak
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paintings they made on rocks, as we
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plains. However, it is clear that t
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establishing the South African Repu
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developments such as the arrival of
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British 219 . On his fugitive way,
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occupied areas which best suited th
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at a macro-level and also filtered
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and Batau, sought sanctuary under t
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when in 1852 when the British recog
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significance of these developments
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of Malebogo 244 . The police force,
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therefore very reluctant - if not u
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Boer triumph on the north-eastern s
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driven by various reasons, found th
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shape political identities in the M
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Why is it that you call them to liv
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missionaries shaping only religious
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military camp during the Bahananwa-
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missionaries, the Boer farmers and
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Lutheran and Wesleyan missionary co
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with its scenic beauty 276 . One of
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the expulsion of Beyer, and his rep
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chapter, however, their core functi
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Lues, leprosy and insanity - terrib
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Blouberg 300 . The British-originat
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African evangelists independent of
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worshipping (and of course, the Kho
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The Wesleyan teachings under Setumu
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(magadi). The missionaries, armed w
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know who has died up there as no he
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political and social contexts are d
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The system of polygamy was an impor
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to Desia Ramoroka 334 , her mother-
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changed as a condition of them bein
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planks for doors, but when Sack did
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ase on the south-western side of th
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The missionaries’ importation of
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y the new ones of the western docto
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as far back as the earliest occupan
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etween clearly distinguishable poli
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move freely everywhere in the entir
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The expansion and settlement of com
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ownership, and land’s related res
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Black communities, were entered int
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they knew of land being privately o
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the basis of a number of financial
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1. Baranen was originally granted t
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therefore granted these farms to th
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The fate of Blacks, which was a com
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As a result of Black issues such as
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Commissioner for Native Affairs in
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as well as sizes of farms in morgen
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were no longer belonging to their o
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19. Rosamond was surveyed by R.E. A
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new developments on their land. App
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Opportunities for purchasing land w
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B: 54/98 Taletje Ngoepe from the fa
Page 239 and 240: traditional communal tenure in whic
Page 241 and 242: The sub-Native Commissioner in Piet
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Page 245 and 246: communal arrangement came under sie
Page 247 and 248: y the 1936 Act in which trust farms
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Page 251 and 252: of deputy-chief Kgare of Moletji wh
Page 253 and 254: Native Trust and to make further pr
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Page 257 and 258: landowners, the farms in the Makgab
Page 259 and 260: Section 5(a) Black polities could b
Page 261 and 262: experiences, and this further shape
Page 263 and 264: agreeing to the contents of the min
Page 265 and 266: In the Makgabeng area, the examples
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Page 269 and 270: Affairs, Hendrik Verwoerd 458 . The
Page 271 and 272: were now selling it 461 . On the ot
Page 273 and 274: were in this office and they agree[
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Page 277 and 278: landowners, these pioneers of the p
Page 279 and 280: The tensions which emanated from th
Page 281 and 282: Moletji 484 , even though their far
Page 283 and 284: Calvin was not only able to establi
Page 285 and 286: co-operation. For instance, they ha
Page 287 and 288: eserves could not support the 500 0
Page 289: held by the Lebowa homeland governm
Page 293 and 294: itself in which people and ideas fl
Page 295 and 296: (present-day Botswana) on their way
Page 297 and 298: whom since the beginning of the yea
Page 299 and 300: The impact of South Africa’s mine
Page 301 and 302: who became wealthy in the diamond f
Page 303 and 304: concentrate on subsistence in the r
Page 305 and 306: especially after initiation 530 . T
Page 307 and 308: Makgabeng area - the Matlala and Ma
Page 309 and 310: In the Makgabeng area, the recruitm
Page 311 and 312: In the earliest days of migrancy, w
Page 313 and 314: (both Boer and British), introduced
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Page 317 and 318: facilities for lonely men in those
Page 319 and 320: shaped by this sharing and interact
Page 321 and 322: The costs of transporting the corps
Page 323 and 324: come to the township, the rural fam
Page 325 and 326: sheep. This accumulation of livesto
Page 327 and 328: Native Commissioner, Pietersburg, B
Page 329 and 330: cooking oil, were some of the commo
Page 331 and 332: For instance, the school, Makgabeng
Page 333 and 334: changes which some of them were tem
Page 335 and 336: addition to the communal identity c
Page 337 and 338: names in South Africa 595 . There a
Page 339 and 340: As already pointed out in Chapter 6
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purchase farms. People of different
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the same farm. However, regardless
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co-purchasers from various origins
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Mpumalanga). Makgabeng is in the Ca
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produced by labelling) 606 . For in
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For instance, Kgoši Ratšhatšha L
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eciprocal questions, “who are you
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which had to be fought against as i
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their distinctive dinaka dance form
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own families because with their new
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different tones. The main differenc
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after a number of girls 630 . For i
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we?” The answers to these questio
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study to argue about the lines betw
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purchases were the Bapedi. This is
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Africa. In the Makgabeng area, as a
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after the livestock while they also
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egarding the youth. Dolby argues th
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not only drink traditional sorghum
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BIBLIOGRAPHY A. PRIMARY SOURCES. AR
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15. Volume 113 NA533/ 03, Native Af
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39. Volume 2/2/67, Part 1, Chief Ma
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69. Volume1233, Pietersburg trading
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REPORTS • File Ref No. A2/10/3 (i
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• Anon. Nachrichten von unserer S
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7. Sania Ramoroka. 8. Nkadi Ngwepe.
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Bam, J. and Visser P., A New Histor
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Hammond-Tooke, W.D., The roots of A
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Van Warmelo, N.J., Die Tlokwa en di
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Boshier, A., et al., “Mining in S
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THESES. Boersema, M., Die malopokul
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Makgabeng situated next to the smal
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MAKGABENG TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP MOGALAK
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Vergelegen MAKGABENG VEGETATION MAP
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