PRINCIPLES OF TOXICOLOGY

22 Controlling Occupational and
Environmental Health Hazards
PAUL J. MIDDENDORF and DAVID E. JACOBS
CONTROLLING OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH HAZARDS
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the practices of individual hygiene as an
application of the principles of toxicology, to protect workers and persons in the community from the
adverse effects of chemicals. This chapter will
• Discuss chemical exposure limits, which are an application of toxicology to exposed
populations
• Describe the roles of industrial hygiene program management in protecting occupational
health
• Detail work practices, administrative, and engineering exposure control methods
• Provide examples in a variety of environments of successful control strategies
22.1 BACKGROUND AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Efforts to control occupational health hazards intensified greatly in the twentieth century. Prior to this
time, occupational health focused on identification of causative relationships between agents and
harmful effects, while virtually ignoring the prevention of occupational diseases. Aristotle, Paracelsus,
Agricola, Ramazzini, and Percival Potts were all involved in identification of occupational diseases,
but recommended relatively few remedial actions. There were some attempts to use animal bladders
as respirators for protection against toxic dusts in mines, and better ventilation, but little progress was
made in prevention of occupational disease. Dr. Alice Hamilton’s work in the early twentieth century
documenting and describing the extent of occupational diseases in the United States is considered to
be the beginning of modern industrial hygiene. She became a strong advocate for the prevention of
occupational disease. In her autobiography, Exploring the Dangerous Trades, she described her
experience with the National Lead Company and the difficulties in convincing managers of the hazards
associated with lead. Eventually she was able to convince them and began a program for prevention
of lead poisoning.
Two organizations were formed to advance the cause of worker health and safety. The American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), a private organization composed largely
of industrial hygienists employed in academia and government, was formed in 1938. The American
Industrial Hygiene Association was formed in 1939 and has come to include many members in both
private industry and the public sector. Both groups brought practitioners together, provided means to
disseminate information, exchange experiences, and conduct symposia. In addition, the American
Public Health Association has had an Occupational Health and Safety Section since 1914. However,
it was not until the growing public awareness of the presence and potentially harmful effects of
chemicals during the 1960s that further regulation of the workplace occurred. Rachel Carson gripped
the nation with her account of the effects of pesticides in the environment in her book Silent Spring
Principles of Toxicology: Environmental and Industrial Applications, Second Edition, Edited by Phillip L. Williams,
Robert C. James, and Stephen M. Roberts.
ISBN 0-471-29321-0 © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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