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page 136 of 188 RIVM report 461502024 1999) 60 , except for SO 2 in industrialised regions where emission factors have been calibrated against other published emission estimates. The EDGAR 2.0 emission factors are in line with the values for CO 2 used by Marland HW DO (1994) and for other compounds with defaults emission factors recommended by the IPCC (IPCC, 1996). In fact the latter are to a large extent global aggregates of regionally aggregated emission factors from EDGAR 2.0. 7DEOH(QGRISLSH62 HPLVVLRQVFRQWUROWHFKQLTXHVIRUWKHGLIIHUHQWHQHUJ\VHFWRUV <strong>Energy</strong> carriers End-use Electric power generation Solid (hard coal, brown Clean coal FGD, integrated coal, coke) technologies, mainly in gasifiers a.o. in Liquid (crude oil based LLF and HLF a ) industry Fuel specification standards and abatement techniques for LLF in transport, residential and services and HLF in industry and other. power plants FGD, integrated gasifiers a.o. in power plants; Fuel specification standards. CHP, small gasturbine, fuel cells Gaseous (natural gas) As with Liquid CHP, small gasturbine, fuel cells Hydropower, nuclear power a.o. Other renewables (solar, wind, biomass-derived) Fuel specification standards and abatement techniques for (commercial) biofuels; passive solar, small-scale wind. a) Light Liquid Fuels LLF, Heavy Liquid Fuels HLF Fuel specification standards and abatement techniques for (commercial) biofuels; solar PV and wind. Fuel supply sectors Coal cleaning (indigenous and import) Oil refineries (Claus plants), bunkers The emission factors of CO 2 of the end-use combustion sources and the electric power generation were all set equal to the fixed global value for each of the five energy carriers considered 61 , as in EDGAR 2.0. These factors are based on IPCC (1994) and Marland and Pippin (1990) and are very similar to those of CDIAC (for a comparison see Marland HWDO, 1999). Also for marine bunkers the emission factor was set on a fixed global value, based on EDGAR aggregates of IPCC recommended factors (IPCC, 1996). For the oil production sector, the emission factors of CO 2 from gas flaring are based on regional factors from EDGAR 3.0, which are based on CDIAC data (Marland HWDO, 1994). For CH 4 the emission factors per sector and energy carrier were set equal for all regions and kept constant over time, except for the transport sector where emission factors are region dependent. In addition, the model takes into account emissions of CH 4 that are related to fuel production and transportation/distribution (surface and underground coal mining, oil and gas production, gas supply) such as CH 4 leakage from natural gas pipelines. The emission factors of CH 4 for these sources have been taken from EDGAR. 60 The EDGAR database is a joint project of RIVM and TNO and stores global inventories of direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions including halocarbons both on a per country basis as well as on 1o x 1o grid. The database has been developed with financial support from the Dutch Ministry of the Environment (VROM) and the Dutch National Research Programme on Global Air Pollution and Climate Change (NRP), in close cooperation with the Global Emissions Inventory Activity (GEIA), a component of the International Atmospheric Chemistry Programme (IGAC) of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Program (IGBP). 61 In IMAGE 2.1 model a correction was made for the coal products used in Eastern Europe, since for this region there is a relative high share of brown coal in total solid fuel consumption.
RIVM report 461502024 page 137 of 188 For N 2 O from stationary sources, emission factors were set equal for all regions and kept constant over time, except for the emission factors for national transport sources (energy carrier: LLF, i.e. gasoline). For non-OECD regions the same value was used for the period 1970-1995, except for the regions Canada, USA and Japan, which were assigned to a higher factor over the period 1970-1995 because of the increasing fraction of catalyst-equipped cars in the vehicle fleet, and Oceania and OECD Europe having introduced catalytic converters in the late 80’s. Emission factor values are calibrated to the shares of catalyst equipped gasoline cars in these regions in 1990 as determined for EDGAR 2.0 (Table 1 in Olivier HW DO 1999). In IMAGE 2.1 these region- and year-specific emission factors for (road) transport were only included for the Canada and USA. For CO, NO x and NMVOC, the region-, energy carrier- and sector-specific emission factors for 1990 were based on the aggregated factors from EDGAR 2.0. Subsequently, it was assumed that emission factors which are in 1990 lower than the 1990 global average factor for that sector and fuel type, were higher in the past due to active or gradual improvements in technology or increased application of control technology. Thus, in these cases the emission factors for 1970 were put at the average value of 1990 with interpolated values in between. For emission factors in 1990 that were higher than the global average the values are assumed to be constant in the period 1970-1990. The transportation sector is the dominant sector for the CO and NMVOC emissions from fossil fuel use and is also a major contributor to NO x emissions. SO 2 emissions which are the largest source of sulphate aerosols and, thus important in assessing climate change, are primarily caused by the energy-related sulphur emissions. Sectorand region-specific emission factors for 1990 were taken from EDGAR 2.0 (Olivier HW DO, 1996; 1999), for fuel combustion provided by Berdowski (pers. comm., 1995), Kato and Akimoto (1992). For the calculation of the energy SO 2 emissions an updated methodology is used by combining regional fuel consumption figures with data on fuel properties, in particular the sulphur content of coal and oil (6X&), ash retention characteristics of each fuel and combustion process, and the level of emissions controls in each sector. For each region the following equation is summed over fuel types and consumption: (0 62 [UV I]W = (1[UV I]W× 6X&[UI]W× (1 - I DVK [U]) × (1-I FRQWURO [UV I]W) [TgS/yr] (8.2) where I DVK is the fraction of the sulphur retained in ash and I FRQWURO is the fraction that is removed by emissions controls, which could be several end-of-pipe desulphurization techniques, such as Flue Gas Desulphurization (FGD) in the electricity sector. Examples of reduction techniques are described in 7DEOH. The sulphur content for the different fossil fuel types, i.e. coal and oil is calculated by the <strong>TIMER</strong> model, and depends on the various fossil trade flows between regions, and the actual sulphur content of the available coal and oil in a region.
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