Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
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206 CONCLUSION<br />
was already present in the times <strong>of</strong> slavery <strong>an</strong>d it did not necessarily clash with the slave order. <strong>Capoeira</strong><br />
was thus always more th<strong>an</strong> just a weapon used by slaves. Furthermore, capoeira contributed to the<br />
configuration <strong>of</strong> the slave community <strong>an</strong>d the redrafting <strong>of</strong> ethnic <strong>an</strong>d social boundaries.<br />
<strong>Capoeira</strong> therefore worked—according to the specific context—both as a tool for open resist<strong>an</strong>ce <strong>an</strong>d as<br />
<strong>an</strong> instrument <strong>of</strong> low-pr<strong>of</strong>ile resist<strong>an</strong>ce, <strong>of</strong> lower-class ‘infrapolitics’. However, despite causing perm<strong>an</strong>ent<br />
headaches to police chiefs during the Brazili<strong>an</strong> Empire, capoeira did not function as <strong>an</strong> unambiguous<br />
weapon <strong>of</strong> class struggle. Slaves never constituted a homogenous class, <strong>an</strong>d fault lines in slave society did<br />
not always neatly oppose black slaves on one side <strong>an</strong>d white owners on the other. <strong>Capoeira</strong> was a deadly<br />
weapon that could be appropriated by whoever was willing either to learn the techniques or to employ its<br />
adepts. Hence it was used as a device by urb<strong>an</strong> g<strong>an</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> thugs <strong>an</strong>d gunmen in the service <strong>of</strong> the powerful.<br />
<strong>Capoeira</strong>s entered military barracks <strong>an</strong>d the militia, <strong>an</strong>d went to new battlefields wearing the uniforms <strong>of</strong><br />
the Brazili<strong>an</strong> Empire. Yet the infiltration <strong>of</strong> state institutions also resulted in capoeira’s dependence from<br />
that particular regime <strong>an</strong>d provoked its demise as <strong>an</strong> independent art. <strong>The</strong> regime ch<strong>an</strong>ge <strong>of</strong> 1889 thus<br />
eradicated most <strong>of</strong> the culture <strong>of</strong> capoeira in Rio de J<strong>an</strong>eiro.<br />
Bahi<strong>an</strong> capoeiras, in contrast, were less systematically involved in local politics <strong>an</strong>d preserved more <strong>of</strong><br />
its rituals <strong>an</strong>d traditions—up to the present. Its epic tales allowed adepts to re-enact the vali<strong>an</strong>t struggles <strong>of</strong><br />
the past. <strong>Capoeira</strong> heroes (or <strong>an</strong>ti-heroes) from Bahia continue to provide role models for younger<br />
generations. <strong>Capoeira</strong> taught adepts how to indulge in the art <strong>of</strong> vagr<strong>an</strong>cy, <strong>an</strong>d how they could fool the<br />
establishment. <strong>The</strong> aim <strong>of</strong> Bahi<strong>an</strong> capoeiras was to survive using—not overthrowing—the system. At the<br />
same time, practitioners learned elaborate body techniques <strong>an</strong>d rituals, which were tr<strong>an</strong>smitted by older<br />
mestres but also re-invented by each generation. Furthermore, through vadiação adepts developed their<br />
musical <strong>an</strong>d poetic skills.<br />
No doubt the <strong>an</strong>ti-clockwise circle <strong>of</strong> the roda with its rituals <strong>of</strong>ten carried tr<strong>an</strong>scendental me<strong>an</strong>ing for<br />
adepts. <strong>Capoeira</strong> developed in a society where faith was central to people’s preoccupations <strong>an</strong>d religious<br />
practices were deeply embedded in everyday life. That spiritual me<strong>an</strong>ing, however, evolved according to the<br />
social context. ‘Prehistoric’ (because undocumented) forms <strong>of</strong> capoeira <strong>an</strong>d other Afric<strong>an</strong> combat games<br />
possibly included dialogue with tr<strong>an</strong>satl<strong>an</strong>tic <strong>an</strong>cestors. Yet these me<strong>an</strong>ings are neither documented for<br />
combat games in Central Africa prior to the twentieth century nor did they survive in the Diaspora. Of<br />
course capoeira retained in Brazil, <strong>an</strong>d in Bahia in particular, strong connections to slave religious practices.<br />
But slaves <strong>an</strong>d their descendents practised different religions <strong>an</strong>d worshipped m<strong>an</strong>y gods, <strong>an</strong>d thus no<br />
unique, all embracing religious me<strong>an</strong>ing was ever attached to capoeira practice in Brazil. <strong>The</strong> idea <strong>of</strong><br />
capoeira as <strong>an</strong> <strong>an</strong>cestral cult <strong>of</strong> ‘crossing the kalunga’, is based on present-day knowledge <strong>of</strong> Central<br />
Afric<strong>an</strong> religious traditions, <strong>an</strong>d was re-invented by <strong>Afro</strong>centric milit<strong>an</strong>ts in the United States during the<br />
1990s. Hence it represents one <strong>of</strong> the new, contemporary me<strong>an</strong>ings <strong>of</strong> globalized capoeira.<br />
<strong>The</strong> modernization <strong>of</strong> capoeira resulted in a fragmentation not only <strong>of</strong> styles but also <strong>of</strong> its social<br />
functions. Former me<strong>an</strong>ings did not disappear altogether, but shifted, <strong>an</strong>d new ones emerged, associating<br />
<strong>an</strong>d overlapping with older ones. Contemporary capoeira c<strong>an</strong> still be a deadly weapon. <strong>The</strong> art provides<br />
adv<strong>an</strong>ced practitioners with a powerful tool <strong>of</strong> self-defence <strong>an</strong>d enh<strong>an</strong>ces their self-assur<strong>an</strong>ce, both <strong>of</strong> which<br />
are useful assets in the jungle <strong>of</strong> our cities. <strong>Capoeira</strong> always helped to maintain form <strong>an</strong>d more generally the<br />
good health <strong>of</strong> its adepts. It is well known that capoeiristas who regularly practise c<strong>an</strong> do so until a very<br />
adv<strong>an</strong>ced age. Modernization has me<strong>an</strong>t that sportive <strong>an</strong>d therapeutic functions are not only more explicitly<br />
recognized <strong>an</strong>d <strong>an</strong>alysed, but also that the art was taken out <strong>of</strong> its traditional context (the roda), to the<br />
‘academies’, <strong>an</strong>d, subsequently, to the therapy rooms in order to fulfil these specific purposes. One <strong>of</strong> the<br />
new me<strong>an</strong>ings capoeira acquired in the context <strong>of</strong> modern society is to preserve bodily skills familiar in<br />
‘traditional’ societies, which have been lost in the process <strong>of</strong> modernization. Marcel Mauss already