Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
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Slave culture in Brazil<br />
THE CONTEXT OF THE BLACK ATLANTIC 37<br />
<strong>The</strong> strongest case for the existence <strong>of</strong> Afric<strong>an</strong> ‘retentions’, or slave practices that c<strong>an</strong> be seen as<br />
‘extensions’ <strong>of</strong> originally Afric<strong>an</strong> cultures is undoubtedly in the field <strong>of</strong> religion. Since Nina Rodrigues,<br />
scholars have pointed out to what extent <strong>Afro</strong>-Brazili<strong>an</strong> religions tr<strong>an</strong>smitted Afric<strong>an</strong> values, aesthetics <strong>an</strong>d<br />
spirituality. Despite the constraints <strong>of</strong> slavery, Afric<strong>an</strong> captives tr<strong>an</strong>spl<strong>an</strong>ted the worship <strong>of</strong> their gods,<br />
which involved elaborate rituals, to Brazil. Bastide <strong>an</strong>d his successors have highlighted that the Bahi<strong>an</strong><br />
c<strong>an</strong>domblé represents a complex religious system with four complementary dimensions: the worship <strong>of</strong> the<br />
gods, the cult <strong>of</strong> <strong>an</strong>cestors, divination <strong>an</strong>d healing. Until today traditional cult houses pray to the orixás in<br />
ritual l<strong>an</strong>guages that are derived from Yoruba, Fon or Kimbundu, even if m<strong>an</strong>y followers do no longer<br />
underst<strong>an</strong>d the me<strong>an</strong>ing <strong>of</strong> the words. 28 M<strong>an</strong>y studies have established clear links regarding formal aspects<br />
<strong>an</strong>d cultural me<strong>an</strong>ings <strong>of</strong> religions on both sides <strong>of</strong> the Atl<strong>an</strong>tic; some have also shown the import<strong>an</strong>ce <strong>of</strong><br />
ongoing tr<strong>an</strong>satl<strong>an</strong>tic links.<br />
<strong>The</strong> recognition <strong>of</strong> all those import<strong>an</strong>t continuities does not me<strong>an</strong>, however, that no or few ch<strong>an</strong>ges<br />
occurred. On the contrary, practitioners introduced a number <strong>of</strong> signific<strong>an</strong>t alterations, even in the houses<br />
reputed to be the most traditional. One major tr<strong>an</strong>sformation consisted in uniting the cult <strong>of</strong> different gods—<br />
worshipped separately in Africa—creating, thus, a ‘little Africa’ in the single space <strong>of</strong> the terreiro. 29 Since<br />
Bastide scholars have emphasized that syncretism—the specific form <strong>of</strong> creolization in the religious<br />
domain—occurred as much among the Afric<strong>an</strong> religions as between them <strong>an</strong>d the religious traditions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
colonizers. 30 <strong>The</strong> similarities between Afric<strong>an</strong> religious traditions within each cultural sub area obviously<br />
eased their fusion in the diaspora. Yet inter-Afric<strong>an</strong> syncretism even amalgamated elements from culturally<br />
more diverse backgrounds. <strong>The</strong> formation <strong>of</strong> neo-Afric<strong>an</strong> ‘nations’ in c<strong>an</strong>domblé never me<strong>an</strong>t strict<br />
segmentation <strong>an</strong>d absolute separation between the Nagô, Jeje <strong>an</strong>d Angola traditions. It is well known that<br />
the Angola cults, <strong>of</strong>ten characterized or even stigmatized as more syncretic or flexible, embraced m<strong>an</strong>y<br />
features <strong>of</strong> the Nagô tradition, <strong>an</strong>d even the whole Yoruba p<strong>an</strong>theon. Hence in Brazil, the Central Afric<strong>an</strong><br />
worshippers <strong>of</strong> inquices adopted the ritual structure <strong>of</strong> the West Afric<strong>an</strong> cult <strong>of</strong> the orixás, <strong>an</strong>d thus created<br />
the c<strong>an</strong>domblé de Angola. It is less known, however, that the org<strong>an</strong>ization <strong>an</strong>d ceremonies <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
traditional houses in Bahia, which claim to belong to the Nagô-Ketu or the Ketu nation, are in fact much closer<br />
to the religious model <strong>of</strong> the Fons from Benin. 31 Anthropologists have furthermore pointed out that the<br />
‘Afric<strong>an</strong>’ character <strong>of</strong> m<strong>an</strong>y aspects <strong>of</strong> c<strong>an</strong>domblé are social constructions that arise out <strong>of</strong> specific<br />
Brazili<strong>an</strong> contexts, <strong>an</strong>d which c<strong>an</strong> therefore vary according to the location. 32 Despite all those mutual<br />
borrowings, adaptations <strong>an</strong>d re-inventions, one point has to remain clear: within the realm <strong>of</strong> Afric<strong>an</strong>derived<br />
religion, slaves <strong>an</strong>d their descendents did not primarily build p<strong>an</strong>-Afric<strong>an</strong>, black or Brazili<strong>an</strong><br />
identities, but rather associated with particular, neo-Afric<strong>an</strong> nations that seemed more suited to express their<br />
aspirations.<br />
Yet not all slaves worshipped exclusively Afric<strong>an</strong> gods. <strong>The</strong> ambiguous relationship with the masters’<br />
faith <strong>an</strong>d church constituted the other fundamental aspect <strong>of</strong> slave religion. Albeit a sizeable group <strong>of</strong><br />
Afric<strong>an</strong>s had already adopted Christi<strong>an</strong>ity in Kongo/Angola, m<strong>an</strong>y slaves were forced to convert to<br />
Catholicism <strong>an</strong>d were immersed into a domin<strong>an</strong>t Catholic universe. Depending on their master’s attitude<br />
they might have to attend mass <strong>an</strong>d observe other Catholic rituals. How m<strong>an</strong>y genuinely adopted Christi<strong>an</strong><br />
values <strong>an</strong>d how m<strong>an</strong>y just pretended to do so is a matter <strong>of</strong> debate, but both attitudes undoubtedly coexisted.<br />
Slaves willing to deceive their masters readily discovered that the easiest way to do this was by<br />
superimposing the cult <strong>of</strong> Catholic saints on that <strong>of</strong> their Afric<strong>an</strong> deities, resulting in the well known<br />
association, in Bahia, <strong>of</strong> Jesus with the Nagô orixá Oxalá, St Barbara with Y<strong>an</strong>sã, St George with Oxossi<br />
<strong>an</strong>d St Anthony with Ogun. Thus, slaves used festivals dedicated to a Catholic saint to discreetly worship a<br />
corresponding Afric<strong>an</strong> God. Some scholars argue that over time people were unable to disent<strong>an</strong>gle the two,