Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
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THE CONTEXT OF THE BLACK ATLANTIC 55<br />
Morengy in Madagascar also counts on bare-knuckle boxing as a basic fighting technique. M<strong>an</strong>y styles<br />
exist among the over 40 different ethnic groups <strong>of</strong> the isl<strong>an</strong>d. <strong>The</strong> additional use <strong>of</strong> the feet is only permitted<br />
in some regions, for inst<strong>an</strong>ce in the variety known as watsa on the northwestern coast. In some other areas<br />
only fighting with feet is permitted. 118<br />
Moringue was practised on the isl<strong>an</strong>d <strong>of</strong> Réunion until the 1950s <strong>an</strong>d was revitalized after 1989. It is also<br />
attributed to the slaves who came to the isl<strong>an</strong>d to toil on French pl<strong>an</strong>tations. According to Je<strong>an</strong>-René<br />
Dreinaza, one <strong>of</strong> the isl<strong>an</strong>d’s authorities on the topic <strong>an</strong>d the main person responsible for the art’s recent reemergence,<br />
moringue started with the clenched fist challenge, the earth ritual consisting <strong>of</strong> smearing mud or<br />
rubbing dust on one’s body before fighting, <strong>an</strong>d the ritual chest butt as a test <strong>of</strong> strength. Contrary to most<br />
<strong>of</strong> its cognates on Comoros <strong>an</strong>d Madagascar, moringue only uses kicks, but not punches. M<strong>an</strong>y <strong>of</strong> its<br />
movements strongly resemble those <strong>of</strong> capoeira. For inst<strong>an</strong>ce, the strike with the heel <strong>of</strong> the foot, the talon<br />
zirondelles, corresponds to the technique known as the rabo de arraia in capoeira. Powe acknowledges <strong>an</strong><br />
original link with the local religion maloya, but also how the art became increasingly pr<strong>of</strong><strong>an</strong>e. Prize matches<br />
have thus been central to its practice. As in Brazil, the social background <strong>of</strong> moringue adepts exp<strong>an</strong>ded<br />
subst<strong>an</strong>tially during the nineteenth century to include other social <strong>an</strong>d ethnic groups (Indi<strong>an</strong>s <strong>an</strong>d the mixed<br />
population). <strong>The</strong> social context <strong>of</strong> moringue in former times also varied accordingly: sometimes it happened<br />
in front <strong>of</strong> a store, sometimes in the back <strong>of</strong> a market, in the ring destined for cockfights. It was perceived as<br />
a creole art <strong>an</strong>d for that reason attacked by authorities <strong>an</strong>d fr<strong>an</strong>cophile elites. 119<br />
This cursory review <strong>of</strong> the main martial art form in the Afric<strong>an</strong> Indi<strong>an</strong> Oce<strong>an</strong> allows some conclusions.<br />
First, one has to acknowledge the variety <strong>of</strong> techniques: some vari<strong>an</strong>ts use only fists, others only the feet<br />
<strong>an</strong>d m<strong>an</strong>y use both resources. This is matched by the variety <strong>of</strong> social contexts <strong>an</strong>d cultural me<strong>an</strong>ings.<br />
Religion—if it once was—does not now seem to be a central feature in most cases, although combat games<br />
are preceded by rituals invoking spiritual protection. Prize-matches with referees instead seem to constitute<br />
the central aspect in all <strong>of</strong> them, <strong>an</strong>d in m<strong>an</strong>y inst<strong>an</strong>ces a modern b<strong>an</strong>d has replaced the original drums.<br />
Furthermore, the association <strong>of</strong> these arts with slaves in both Comoros <strong>an</strong>d Réunion (<strong>an</strong>d in Madagascar<br />
eventually with ethnic groups proceeding from Mozambique) suggests that moringue <strong>an</strong>d mrengé are the<br />
result <strong>of</strong> the slave trade <strong>an</strong>d the pl<strong>an</strong>tation economy. Despite their location in the Indi<strong>an</strong> Oce<strong>an</strong>, these arts<br />
belong therefore to the combat games <strong>of</strong> the Black Atl<strong>an</strong>tic. Like their Brazili<strong>an</strong> cognate capoeira, they are<br />
already creole developments. Thus once again, a rigid distinction between ‘Afric<strong>an</strong>’ <strong>an</strong>d ‘creole’ is not<br />
helpful for underst<strong>an</strong>ding their historical development.<br />
This is also the case <strong>of</strong> bassula, <strong>an</strong>other twentieth-century Angol<strong>an</strong> combat game for which some basic<br />
documentation exists. Câmara Cascudo, even though taking on board the theory <strong>of</strong> n’golo as the <strong>an</strong>cestor <strong>of</strong><br />
capoeira, discussed bassula, practised by the Auxilu<strong>an</strong>da people, as <strong>an</strong>other possible origin <strong>of</strong> the Brazili<strong>an</strong><br />
martial art. 120 He even suggested that bassula might have derived from n’golo, although he admittedly<br />
never saw either <strong>of</strong> them performed, but only heard or read descriptions <strong>of</strong> combat games. <strong>The</strong> Axilu<strong>an</strong>da<br />
resulted from the ‘centuries-old intermingling <strong>of</strong> B<strong>an</strong>tu cultures <strong>an</strong>d peoples, mainly Bakongos <strong>an</strong>d<br />
Kimbundus’. 121 <strong>The</strong>y settled along the coast, in fishing villages from Barra do D<strong>an</strong>de to Corimba (now the<br />
Mussolo) isthmus. Popular at least until the 1960s along that section <strong>of</strong> the coast, <strong>an</strong>d also in some<br />
muceques (slums) <strong>of</strong> Lu<strong>an</strong>da, it faded away since independence (1975) <strong>an</strong>d is now considered to be extinct.<br />
Recent iconographic sources suggest that bassula ressembles more a type <strong>of</strong> wrestling, where opponents<br />
hold each other by the elbows or by the body. Movements include throws <strong>an</strong>d immobilizations, but also<br />
capoeira-like rasteiras.<br />
According to Mestre Kabetula, boys had to learn bassula from their fathers or relatives as a me<strong>an</strong>s to face<br />
challenges in their social or pr<strong>of</strong>essional lives, for inst<strong>an</strong>ce when fixing fish prices with Portuguese traders,<br />
or resisting assaults by Congolese fishermen. Weapons were also used in the fights, including truncheons,