Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
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THE CONTEXT OF THE BLACK ATLANTIC 65<br />
Slaves from different origins practised combat games throughout Pl<strong>an</strong>tation America in their free time,<br />
mainly on Sunday afternoons or during festivals such as carnival. <strong>The</strong>y practised them alongside other<br />
‘pastimes’ such as playing music <strong>an</strong>d d<strong>an</strong>cing. What were friendly games in this context acquired new<br />
me<strong>an</strong>ings when contests became more serious: to settle a dispute, to prove one’s honour or to win a prize.<br />
Prize matches for masters, in particular, would not allow for m<strong>an</strong>y <strong>of</strong> the original Afric<strong>an</strong> me<strong>an</strong>ings to be<br />
passed on, even though they might help to keep alive a specific type <strong>of</strong> combat technique. Even when used<br />
as a weapon in fights, combat techniques acquired new me<strong>an</strong>ings given that conflicts in pl<strong>an</strong>tation societies<br />
were <strong>of</strong> a different order to those <strong>of</strong> pre-colonial or contemporary Africa.<br />
Hence, in the Americas, the combat techniques practised by slaves were usually known as ‘games’ that were<br />
‘played’ <strong>an</strong>d were not perceived—as in Africa—as primarily ceremonial d<strong>an</strong>ces or state rituals. <strong>The</strong>y still<br />
fulfilled import<strong>an</strong>t functions in the slave community. Even though they served recreational purposes they<br />
certainly had deeper me<strong>an</strong>ings th<strong>an</strong> just pastimes. Combat games could help to reconstitute a community, to<br />
settle disputes or to re-affirm ethnic pride in a society that discriminated against the slaves’ original cultures.<br />
Slaves also relied on their beliefs <strong>an</strong>d magical practices for best perform<strong>an</strong>ces, although we have no<br />
evidence that creole combat games were always closely or exclusively linked to one particular religious<br />
practice as it had been in Africa. If m<strong>an</strong>y made use <strong>of</strong> ‘witchcraft’ to support their strength, this was not<br />
necessarily <strong>an</strong> intrinsic part <strong>of</strong> <strong>an</strong>y game, <strong>an</strong>d thus the relationship between both could be loosened over<br />
time without affecting the practice. <strong>The</strong>refore, despite the import<strong>an</strong>t links with religion to be examined in<br />
more detail for capoeira, it appears that most combat games in Pl<strong>an</strong>tation America were not considered <strong>an</strong><br />
intrinsic part <strong>of</strong> a specific religious practice. Some combat games in the diaspora, however, were embedded<br />
in wider religious m<strong>an</strong>ifestations, such as the stick fighting in the procession for St Anthony in Venezuela<br />
or capoeira played during celebrations for Bahi<strong>an</strong> saints (see Chapter 4). <strong>The</strong>y therefore could constitute <strong>an</strong><br />
aspect <strong>of</strong> a complex expression <strong>of</strong> popular culture that went beyond the narrow limits <strong>of</strong> a mere combat game.<br />
As we are going to see, this also applies to capoeira <strong>an</strong>d might be one reason for its survival.<br />
A striking <strong>an</strong>alogy among <strong>Afro</strong>-Americ<strong>an</strong> combat games is the coexistence <strong>of</strong> different modalities using<br />
similar techniques in different contexts: friendly game, rougher competition, or real fight. As has been<br />
suggested for capoeira, 149 this ‘strategic ambivalence’ between various modalities probably constitutes a<br />
key heritage <strong>of</strong> slavery, since it does not seem to have featured prominently in Afric<strong>an</strong> combat games. We<br />
will need to pay particular attention to this when dealing with capoeira, <strong>an</strong>d as well as comparing this with<br />
the modalities, or styles existing in other martial arts. 150 <strong>The</strong> examples <strong>of</strong> stick fighting <strong>an</strong>d ladjia suggest<br />
that circularity <strong>an</strong>d mutual borrowing existed between different combat games <strong>an</strong>d question the belief in a<br />
necessary single origin for <strong>an</strong>y <strong>of</strong> them.<br />
We c<strong>an</strong> now attempt to sketch briefly the situation in Brazil before examining, in the next chapters, the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> capoeira in more detail. Although no evidence is available so far for the early colonial<br />
period, later sources attest the existence <strong>of</strong> not only one, but various combat games in Brazil. <strong>The</strong> Bavari<strong>an</strong><br />
painter Rugendas, who provided us with very detailed descriptions <strong>of</strong> slave culture, observed slaves stick<br />
fighting during the 1820s:<br />
It is also necessary to mention a sort <strong>of</strong> military d<strong>an</strong>ce: two troops armed with poles st<strong>an</strong>d in front <strong>of</strong><br />
each other, <strong>an</strong>d the skill consists for each to avoid the thrusts that the adversary strikes at him. 151<br />
Stick fighting <strong>an</strong>d d<strong>an</strong>cing has survived well into the twentieth century through m<strong>an</strong>ifestations such as the<br />
maculêlê in Bahia <strong>an</strong>d the m<strong>an</strong>eiro pau in Ceará.<br />
Undoubtedly the most prominent <strong>of</strong> all combat games in Brazil was <strong>an</strong>d is capoeira. It is mentioned in the<br />
nineteenth-century sources <strong>of</strong> m<strong>an</strong>y provinces: Pará, Mar<strong>an</strong>hão, Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio de J<strong>an</strong>eiro <strong>an</strong>d São