Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
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COMPETING MASTER NARRATIVES 29<br />
women suffered from male capoeiras <strong>an</strong>d <strong>an</strong>y other aspect that questions the ‘resist<strong>an</strong>ce’ aspect <strong>of</strong> the art<br />
are not problematized. Positive contributions by middle-class practitioners to rescue the art are equally<br />
dismissed.<br />
<strong>The</strong> fundamental differences between these master narratives c<strong>an</strong> explain heated controversies over<br />
issues that might seem <strong>of</strong> secondary import<strong>an</strong>ce to outsiders. <strong>The</strong> origin <strong>of</strong> the term capoeira, for inst<strong>an</strong>ce, gave<br />
rise to lengthy polemics since the 1920s, with scholars <strong>an</strong>d practitioners defending alternatively a Tupi<br />
(native Brazili<strong>an</strong>), Portuguese or Afric<strong>an</strong> origin <strong>of</strong> the term. 98 I believe that only by placing these never<br />
ending debates into that broader context <strong>of</strong> competing master narratives does the rationale <strong>of</strong> these struggles<br />
become clear.<br />
As we have seen, each master narrative makes extensive use <strong>of</strong> myths <strong>an</strong>d, eventually, even <strong>of</strong> fakes.<br />
This does not me<strong>an</strong> that their overall objective is not legitimate to some degree. Creation or ‘foundational<br />
‘myths seem central to the forging <strong>of</strong> identities <strong>of</strong> all kinds <strong>of</strong> org<strong>an</strong>izations. Essentialism <strong>of</strong> one kind or the<br />
other seems to be inherent to all emerging social or national movements. To aggregate as large as possible<br />
<strong>an</strong> audience, dem<strong>an</strong>ds are org<strong>an</strong>ized around <strong>an</strong> a-historical essence that needs to be ‘restored’. In a second<br />
moment, however, essentialist claims which gloss over contradictions are reconsidered as these become,<br />
through the very dynamic <strong>of</strong> the movement, more apparent. <strong>The</strong> deconstruction <strong>of</strong> ‘essences’ thus<br />
constitutes a necessary supplement to essentialism with which it entertains a dialectic relationship. 99 ‘In<br />
identifying mythical elements in our own cultural or pr<strong>of</strong>essional assumptions, we threaten our ethnocentric<br />
self-confidence’. 100 <strong>The</strong> critique <strong>of</strong> essentialism is furthermore crucial in the struggle against<br />
fundamentalism <strong>of</strong> all sorts, be it ethnical absolutism, national narrowness or neo-liberal commodification.<br />
That is why I believe it is import<strong>an</strong>t to show that capoeira is a prime example <strong>of</strong> a ‘counterculture <strong>of</strong><br />
modernity’, a ‘tr<strong>an</strong>scultural, international formation’ <strong>of</strong> the Black Atl<strong>an</strong>tic rather th<strong>an</strong> only Afric<strong>an</strong> or<br />
Brazili<strong>an</strong>. 101<br />
<strong>The</strong> challenge is how to integrate these different perspectives into a more encompassing one, which does<br />
justice do the legitimate aspirations <strong>of</strong> each master narrative—the affirmation <strong>of</strong> Brazili<strong>an</strong> or diasporic<br />
Afric<strong>an</strong> identity or the struggle against social exclusion in a world dominated by cultural imperialism <strong>an</strong>d<br />
corporate interests. As a histori<strong>an</strong>, I believe that the critique <strong>of</strong> sources is valid across cultural differences<br />
<strong>an</strong>d constitutes therefore a common ground on which to build such <strong>an</strong> interpretation. 102 In other words, despite<br />
different working hypotheses <strong>of</strong> each individual scholar, solid evidence tested by historical methods should<br />
provide the me<strong>an</strong>s to adv<strong>an</strong>ce in our search to underst<strong>an</strong>d better the development <strong>of</strong> capoeira. This<br />
obviously excludes faking sources <strong>an</strong>d facts, but me<strong>an</strong>s to be able to revise our assumptions should new<br />
evidence require us to do so.<br />
Fortunately, the dialogue between capoeira mestres, scholars, practitioners <strong>an</strong>d the wider public is already<br />
happening. Around the world, the history <strong>of</strong> capoeira is being debated in journals, seminars <strong>an</strong>d capoeira<br />
encounters. <strong>The</strong> growing import<strong>an</strong>ce <strong>of</strong> ‘virtual rodas’ on the internet also reflects the intensity <strong>of</strong> actual<br />
discussions. 103 Positions are <strong>of</strong>ten less rigid <strong>an</strong>d subtle th<strong>an</strong> the essentialist narratives I have presented here.<br />
Almost every month new research enriches our underst<strong>an</strong>ding <strong>of</strong> capoeira history. It is from this ever<br />
growing mass <strong>of</strong> information that I have tried to summarize the history that follows.