Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
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THE CONTEXT OF THE BLACK ATLANTIC 43<br />
traditions <strong>of</strong> royalty converged in the celebration <strong>of</strong> these ‘Afric<strong>an</strong> kingdoms’ under the m<strong>an</strong>tle <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Church. Marina de Mello e Souza has shown the cultural hybridity <strong>of</strong> the congadas <strong>an</strong>d concluded that the<br />
black king was a ‘symbol <strong>of</strong> a mythic <strong>an</strong>d homogenized Africa. 63 <strong>The</strong> black brotherhoods not only<br />
represented ‘the triumph <strong>of</strong> a continuing strategy to preserve a link to Africa’, but constituted <strong>an</strong><br />
‘intercontinental web’ created by Atl<strong>an</strong>tic creoles that stretched from Lisbon, São Tomé, Angola to Brazil. 64<br />
In fact not only the Congo slaves elected their kings, but those from other ‘nations’ as well. As recent<br />
research on brotherhoods in Rio de J<strong>an</strong>eiro shows, other particular ethnicities were maintained <strong>an</strong>d<br />
developed under the umbrella <strong>of</strong> the universalistic Catholic Church. <strong>The</strong> confraternity <strong>of</strong> St Elesbão <strong>an</strong>d St<br />
Ephigenia, founded in 1740, admitted slaves from the Mina Coast, from Cabo Verde, São Tomé <strong>an</strong>d<br />
Mozambique, but excluded initially the Angolas, creoles <strong>an</strong>d mulattos (cabras). Several ‘kingdoms’ or<br />
‘follies’ (reinados or folias) were created within that brotherhood, resulting in—first—a subdivision<br />
between the members from the Mina Coast <strong>an</strong>d all the others, each group electing its own royal couple. As<br />
further conflicts developed among the different ethnic groups subsumed initially under the general<br />
denomination Mina (such as the Agolin, the Dagomé <strong>an</strong>d the Maki), a number <strong>of</strong> smaller folias were<br />
subsequently created, regrouping several, or in the case <strong>of</strong> the Maki, only one <strong>of</strong> these smaller West Afric<strong>an</strong><br />
nations. 65<br />
What is the signific<strong>an</strong>ce <strong>of</strong> this development <strong>of</strong> neo-Afric<strong>an</strong> ethnic identities within the colonizer’s<br />
institutions? At first sight one might be tempted to read it exclusively as a sign <strong>of</strong> the slaves’ cultural<br />
resist<strong>an</strong>ce. Some data indeed suggest that the religious institutions org<strong>an</strong>ized along ‘national’ boundaries<br />
allowed the preservation <strong>of</strong> older, Afric<strong>an</strong> practices. Brotherhoods, or smaller congregations such as the<br />
‘kingdoms’ they contained, were sometimes accused by outsiders—including slaves belonging to other<br />
‘nations’—<strong>of</strong> perpetuating ‘superstitious’, e.g. Afric<strong>an</strong> religious practices. This kind <strong>of</strong> ‘retention’ would<br />
support the idea <strong>of</strong> slave ‘deception’. Furthermore, congregations <strong>an</strong>d brotherhoods also fostered the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> new, colonial identities, which constituted ‘extensions’ <strong>of</strong> originally Afric<strong>an</strong> ethnicities.<br />
Thus, parallel to the process <strong>of</strong> inter-Afric<strong>an</strong> syncretism occurring in the proto-c<strong>an</strong>domblés, the reapproximation<br />
<strong>an</strong>d eventually the fusion <strong>of</strong> groups that shared common cultural traits or a similar history <strong>of</strong><br />
enslavement resulted in the formation <strong>of</strong> colonial, neo-Afric<strong>an</strong> ‘nations’ such as Angola, Congo <strong>an</strong>d<br />
Benguela. <strong>The</strong>se, in effect, substituted the original ethnicities. A similar amalgamation resulted in the<br />
emergence <strong>of</strong> Nagô <strong>an</strong>d Jeje identities for West Afric<strong>an</strong>s <strong>an</strong>d their descend<strong>an</strong>ts. It is therefore import<strong>an</strong>t to<br />
emphasize that Nagô, for inst<strong>an</strong>ce, is not just a Brazili<strong>an</strong> term for the Yoruba in West Africa, but rather the<br />
result <strong>of</strong> a specific, colonial process <strong>of</strong> ethnogenesis. <strong>The</strong>refore the emergence <strong>of</strong> the Nagô in Brazil, the<br />
Yoruba in what is now Nigeria or the Lucumi in colonial Cuba are the result <strong>of</strong> parallel developments<br />
within the Black Atl<strong>an</strong>tic. 66<br />
On the other side it is absolutely clear that slaveholders <strong>an</strong>d authorities <strong>of</strong>ten encouraged the formation <strong>of</strong><br />
these compartmented slave ‘nations’ as a me<strong>an</strong>s <strong>of</strong> social control. As already discussed in relation to the<br />
batuques, celebrations such as the elections <strong>of</strong> a ‘Congo King’ were allowed because they seemed to<br />
perpetrate ethnic divisions among slaves <strong>an</strong>d to stabilize the otherwise fragile domination <strong>of</strong> a relatively<br />
small white minority. It is thus difficult to locate the emergence <strong>of</strong> neo-Afric<strong>an</strong> identities within a simple<br />
dichotomy <strong>of</strong> resist<strong>an</strong>ce versus accommodation, since different readings <strong>of</strong> the same phenomenon are<br />
possible: they served purposes <strong>of</strong> self-affirmation for slaves <strong>an</strong>d freed persons, but they were also used by<br />
elites as a tool <strong>of</strong> social control. What is clear, however, is that these ‘extended’ neo-Afric<strong>an</strong> identities<br />
acquired new me<strong>an</strong>ings in the colonial context. As the example <strong>of</strong> the brotherhoods shows, the relations<br />
between slave religion <strong>an</strong>d Catholicism, <strong>an</strong>d between slave <strong>an</strong>d broader popular culture were complex <strong>an</strong>d<br />
intertwined. Often specific features <strong>of</strong> slave culture <strong>an</strong>d religion were embedded into wider m<strong>an</strong>ifestations.