Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
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COMPETING MASTER NARRATIVES 13<br />
monarchists by the press. Although initially da Cunha w<strong>an</strong>ted to prove the degeneration <strong>of</strong> the mestiço, he<br />
became so impressed with the heroic resist<strong>an</strong>ce <strong>of</strong> the charismatic leader <strong>an</strong>d his supporters, that he<br />
concluded the isolation <strong>of</strong> the semiarid sertão (backl<strong>an</strong>ds) did have positive effects on the racial type (which<br />
was rather in contradiction to his theoretical assumptions). Da Cunha was part <strong>of</strong> a whole generation <strong>of</strong><br />
writers, such as Capistr<strong>an</strong>o de Abreu <strong>an</strong>d Coelho Neto, who stigmatized the cities as Europe<strong>an</strong>ized whereas<br />
the true Brazil was to be found in the vast interior. 25 <strong>The</strong> idea that ‘authentic’ cultural m<strong>an</strong>ifestations were<br />
located in the backl<strong>an</strong>ds became <strong>an</strong>other persistent theme that re-emerged again in capoeira history,<br />
reappearing for inst<strong>an</strong>ce in the already mentioned myth <strong>of</strong> the maroon capoeira.<br />
In summary, towards the end <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century, the mestiço provided intellectuals searching for<br />
the national character with a new subject on which to graft their theories. <strong>The</strong> adv<strong>an</strong>tage <strong>of</strong> the new way <strong>of</strong><br />
defining the Brazili<strong>an</strong> nation was that miscegenation <strong>an</strong>d its outcome, the mestiço , ‘allowed constructing<br />
the image <strong>of</strong> a homogenous social totality’. 26 This became ever more crucial as new waves <strong>of</strong> immigr<strong>an</strong>ts<br />
were disembarking on the country’s shores in the latter part <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century. Racial theories also<br />
shaped immigration policies. ‘Industrious’ Europe<strong>an</strong> workers were supposed to improve the ‘Brazili<strong>an</strong> race’<br />
through whitening. Black labourers from Africa or North America were clearly undesirable, <strong>an</strong>d even Asi<strong>an</strong>s<br />
(Chinese) were initially rejected, though a quarter <strong>of</strong> a million Jap<strong>an</strong>ese were later allowed to enter the country.<br />
This shift in policy reflects not only a lack <strong>of</strong> firm consensus among the elites, but also <strong>an</strong> import<strong>an</strong>t ch<strong>an</strong>ge<br />
in the ways foreign migr<strong>an</strong>ts were perceived <strong>an</strong>d integrated. As enthusiasm for Europe<strong>an</strong> workers was<br />
tamed by their labour activism or their unwillingness to assimilate, intellectuals <strong>an</strong>d politici<strong>an</strong>s increasingly<br />
worried about the consequences <strong>of</strong> massive immigration for nation building <strong>an</strong>d the need to construct a<br />
Brazili<strong>an</strong> identity not based on the emulation <strong>of</strong> Europe<strong>an</strong> models or a linear process <strong>of</strong> whitening.<br />
Popular resentment against the favouritism Portuguese male migr<strong>an</strong>ts commonly enjoyed when applying<br />
for jobs or competing for Brazili<strong>an</strong> women expressed itself in the revival <strong>of</strong> the <strong>an</strong>ti-Portuguese imagery in<br />
the independence period. <strong>The</strong> so-called Jacobins, a radical nationalist, pro-republic<strong>an</strong> movement in the<br />
1880s <strong>an</strong>d 1890s, built upon these resentments to gather support in Rio de J<strong>an</strong>eiro, the city with the largest<br />
Portuguese community. This context <strong>of</strong> growing ethnic diversity, resulting in the multiplication <strong>of</strong><br />
‘hyphenated identities’, c<strong>an</strong> explain the national obsession with a homogenous mestiço representing<br />
Brazil. 27<br />
Given the intense discussions among Brazili<strong>an</strong>s regarding national character <strong>an</strong>d race, it is not surprising<br />
that the two founding texts <strong>of</strong> capoeira studies written in the 1880s associate the art with the mestiço.<br />
Plácido de Abreu, a Portuguese-born writer <strong>an</strong>d bohemi<strong>an</strong>, a practitioner <strong>of</strong> capoeira himself, denied that it<br />
had Afric<strong>an</strong> or Indigenous origins: ‘<strong>The</strong> most rational [expl<strong>an</strong>ation] is that capoeiragem was created,<br />
developed <strong>an</strong>d perfected among us [in Brazil]’. 28 <strong>The</strong> decisive contribution for the association <strong>of</strong> capoeira<br />
<strong>an</strong>d the national character came from Alex<strong>an</strong>dro José Mello Moraes Filho (1844–1919). Contrary to<br />
Romero (who prefaced his work), Mello Moraes disapproved <strong>of</strong> large-scale Europe<strong>an</strong> immigration <strong>an</strong>d the<br />
Europe<strong>an</strong>ization <strong>of</strong> customs heralded by the elite as the only me<strong>an</strong>s to progress. He advocated that urb<strong>an</strong><br />
popular culture, in particular the Catholic festivals, constituted the privileged site where the Brazili<strong>an</strong><br />
national character had developed. 29 His classic account Festivals <strong>an</strong>d Popular Traditions, first published in<br />
1888, described both secular <strong>an</strong>d religious festivals <strong>an</strong>d celebrations, mainly in Rio de J<strong>an</strong>eiro <strong>an</strong>d Salvador,<br />
always reputed to be more Luso-tropical th<strong>an</strong> the Europe<strong>an</strong>ized South. 30<br />
In the last section <strong>of</strong> his book, dedicated to ‘street types’, he portrayed capoeiragem as ‘a heritage <strong>of</strong><br />
miscegenation <strong>an</strong>d the conflict <strong>of</strong> races’. 31 Quoting the examples <strong>of</strong> Europe<strong>an</strong> games <strong>an</strong>d fights, from<br />
<strong>an</strong>tique Rom<strong>an</strong> wrestling to French savate, Portuguese stick fighting or British rowing <strong>an</strong>d boxing, he<br />
concluded that they ‘contribute to add a further feature to the national physiognomy’, <strong>an</strong>d that capoeira<br />
should therefore be considered as part <strong>of</strong> the ‘history <strong>of</strong> our customs’. Given that, at the same time, capoeira