Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
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54 THE CONTEXT OF THE BLACK ATLANTIC<br />
executing steps on the point the feet; all this with much speed, shouting, whistling, making gestures<br />
<strong>an</strong>d contortions with his head, face <strong>an</strong>d body, <strong>an</strong>d assuming <strong>an</strong> air <strong>of</strong> ferocity. 113<br />
Since most <strong>of</strong> the ceremonial occasions for holding cufuinha disappeared after the dismembering <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Muatiânvua state, colonial subjugation was, once again, a key moment <strong>of</strong> rupture for combat game<br />
practices. So how seriously c<strong>an</strong> we think <strong>of</strong> cufuinha as <strong>an</strong> <strong>an</strong>cestor <strong>of</strong> capoeira? <strong>The</strong> fact that Carvalho<br />
does not mention <strong>an</strong>y kicks, but instead highlights the use <strong>of</strong> weapons (long knifes) suggests that most<br />
techniques <strong>of</strong> attack in cufuinha were not that similar to capoeira. Yet the idea <strong>of</strong> a link convinced the<br />
pioneer capoeira scholar Édison Carneiro, who wrote to his friend <strong>an</strong>d colleague <strong>Art</strong>ur Ramos that he<br />
considered cufuinha the ‘remote origin <strong>of</strong> the capoeira’. 114 As it happens, Ramos’ suggestion has never been<br />
discussed since; otherwise instead <strong>of</strong> zebra symbols we would now have cufuinha logos inspiring<br />
contemporary capoeira groups.<br />
Even though kicks seem not to have played a prominent role in the cufuinha, one c<strong>an</strong> nevertheless<br />
acknowledge a number <strong>of</strong> other formal similarities with capoeira. It was a mock combat, carried out to the<br />
rhythm <strong>of</strong> drums <strong>an</strong>d other percussion instruments. <strong>The</strong>ir rhythm <strong>an</strong>d the ch<strong>an</strong>ts executed by lead singer <strong>an</strong>d<br />
chorus framed the combat game. Cufuinha performers also made widespread use <strong>of</strong> rhythmic steps,<br />
gestures, <strong>an</strong>d mimicry—features that also figure prominently in capoeira. What further forces us to consider<br />
the impact <strong>of</strong> the cufuinha tradition on capoeira is the fact that subjects <strong>of</strong> the Muatiânvua state were<br />
enslaved <strong>an</strong>d sold into the Americas through the two slaving circuits <strong>of</strong> Benguela <strong>an</strong>d Lu<strong>an</strong>da long before<br />
formal colonial rule was established over the Lunda. <strong>The</strong> slave trade lasted until the 1860s, <strong>an</strong>d Henrique de<br />
Carvalho could observe cufuinha practice only three decades later.<br />
In summary then, Desch-Obi’s theory <strong>of</strong> a ‘monogenetic’ origin <strong>of</strong> capoeira presents a number <strong>of</strong><br />
problems. He suggests that <strong>an</strong> essentially unaltered n’golo <strong>an</strong>d its cognates derived from Imb<strong>an</strong>gala warrior<br />
training (<strong>an</strong> assumption for which no documentary evidence exists), <strong>an</strong>d that its formal aspects—such as the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> kicks <strong>an</strong>d head butts—were intrinsically related to the particular ritual context <strong>of</strong> puberty rites. He<br />
furthermore links n’golo practice to a specific aspect <strong>of</strong> B<strong>an</strong>tu/Kongo philosophy, the ‘crossing <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Kalunga’. 115 M<strong>an</strong>y <strong>Afro</strong>centric adepts <strong>of</strong> capoeira Angola in the United States refer to a ‘traditional’ Kongo<br />
proverb that states: <strong>The</strong> h<strong>an</strong>ds are to build, the feet to destroy’. 116 This supposedly proves that inhabit<strong>an</strong>ts in<br />
the Kongo/Angola region rather used kicks <strong>an</strong>d head butts instead <strong>of</strong> punches, wrestling or stick fighting.<br />
As I hope to have shown, this latter assumption is simply proven inaccurate by historical evidence, <strong>an</strong>d we<br />
need to come up with a more sophisticated expl<strong>an</strong>ation about the link between fighting techniques, combat<br />
games <strong>an</strong>d their wider context.<br />
A brief look at n’golo’s likely cousins in the Afric<strong>an</strong> Indi<strong>an</strong> Oce<strong>an</strong> c<strong>an</strong> help us better to underst<strong>an</strong>d the<br />
relative autonomy between fighting techniques, rituals <strong>an</strong>d social context, <strong>an</strong>d, ultimately, their cultural<br />
me<strong>an</strong>ing. Edward L.Powe’s groundbreaking new research shows the r<strong>an</strong>ge <strong>of</strong> techniques used in<br />
‘traditional’ combat games in the isl<strong>an</strong>ds <strong>of</strong> Comoros, Madagascar <strong>an</strong>d Reunion. Although traditional<br />
wrestling also exists in some areas <strong>of</strong> Madagascar, the most import<strong>an</strong>t combat games in this region are<br />
mrengé (Comoros), morengy (Madagascar), <strong>an</strong>d moringue (Réunion). As the similar names suggest, these<br />
three combat games are closely related.<br />
Mrengé—identified by Powe as the oldest form—is a furious fight using fists, kicks, grabbing <strong>an</strong>d head<br />
butts. Referees separate contest<strong>an</strong>ts when things get too rough. ‘This vicious fighting with intent to maim or<br />
kill’ also makes use <strong>of</strong> deceit such as throwing s<strong>an</strong>d into the opponent’s face. Oral history asserts it derives<br />
from slaves’ pastimes. On Comoros it could also take the form <strong>of</strong> a mass fight between neighbourhoods.<br />
Matches were <strong>of</strong>ten held after the rice harvest <strong>an</strong>d recent ch<strong>an</strong>ges have seen the introduction <strong>of</strong> blows from<br />
other arts <strong>an</strong>d the substitution <strong>of</strong> the orchestra <strong>of</strong> drums <strong>an</strong>d flutes by electric b<strong>an</strong>ds. 117