Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
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64 THE CONTEXT OF THE BLACK ATLANTIC<br />
derived from Central Afric<strong>an</strong> practices. Yet there is not much evidence regarding the incorporation <strong>of</strong><br />
different techniques into modern ladjia styles to support his view, <strong>an</strong>d none at all for the crucial formative<br />
period <strong>of</strong> slavery. Furthermore, as crucial as the distinction between a mere combat game <strong>an</strong>d a more<br />
complex martial art might be, nothing allows us to establish a cle<strong>an</strong> separation between West Afric<strong>an</strong> sports<br />
<strong>an</strong>d B<strong>an</strong>tu martial arts. As I have tried to show, most combat forms practised by slaves <strong>an</strong>d their<br />
descend<strong>an</strong>ts could assume different me<strong>an</strong>ings according to the context. <strong>The</strong> political <strong>an</strong>d social context<br />
ultimately shaped not only their formal aspects, but also their cultural me<strong>an</strong>ing, from a pl<strong>an</strong>ter-sponsored<br />
match to a friendly game in a ritualized context. In other words, it is about time to ab<strong>an</strong>don the strictly<br />
‘monogenetic’ approach, which believes in ‘B<strong>an</strong>tu essence’ being tr<strong>an</strong>smitted through ages. An approach<br />
that acknowledges the multiple influences upon <strong>Afro</strong>-Americ<strong>an</strong> combat games <strong>an</strong>d emphasizes the<br />
creolization process is, I believe, ultimately far more convincing.<br />
Combat games in Brazil<br />
Even the most superficial overview <strong>of</strong> fighting techniques <strong>an</strong>d combat games practised in different<br />
historical contexts in Africa reveals their diversity in all the regions from which slaves were deported to the<br />
Americas. Ritual combat was embedded in various ceremonial contexts <strong>an</strong>d fulfilled a r<strong>an</strong>ge <strong>of</strong> different<br />
social functions, from puberty rites in a community to state ceremonials. Unfortunately we lack detailed<br />
records for combat games practised at the time <strong>of</strong> the slave trade to underst<strong>an</strong>d fully their me<strong>an</strong>ing in each<br />
specific context. <strong>The</strong> information available on these aspects usually concerns relatively contemporary<br />
m<strong>an</strong>ifestations, which have ch<strong>an</strong>ged as much as their New World counterparts <strong>an</strong>d c<strong>an</strong> therefore not be<br />
taken as their close ‘<strong>an</strong>cestors’, but should rather be seen as their dist<strong>an</strong>t ‘cousins’.<br />
Nevertheless, the close association <strong>of</strong> combat movements with rhythm, music, p<strong>an</strong>tomime, d<strong>an</strong>ce <strong>an</strong>d<br />
singing appears as one common denominator <strong>of</strong> most, if not all, known combat games practised by slaves<br />
<strong>an</strong>d their descend<strong>an</strong>ts. A number <strong>of</strong> import<strong>an</strong>t formal continuities regarding instruments, rhythms,<br />
movements, rituals <strong>an</strong>d the invocation <strong>of</strong> magic powers characterize slave combat games in Pl<strong>an</strong>tation<br />
America. In that respect one certainly ought to speak <strong>of</strong> Afric<strong>an</strong>-derived m<strong>an</strong>ifestations, which all explore<br />
the synchronization between rhythms <strong>an</strong>d movements. Yet their survival—<strong>an</strong>d we have seen that m<strong>an</strong>y did<br />
not m<strong>an</strong>age to survive to the present day—also depended on their capacities <strong>of</strong> adaptation <strong>an</strong>d ch<strong>an</strong>ge. As with<br />
c<strong>an</strong>domblé <strong>an</strong>d batuque, the existence <strong>of</strong> related forms, reflecting structural similarities within major culture<br />
areas—for inst<strong>an</strong>ce West Afric<strong>an</strong> wrestling—could contribute to the emergence <strong>of</strong> broader, creolized<br />
m<strong>an</strong>ifestations that merged more specific traditions. In that respect the formation <strong>of</strong> <strong>Afro</strong>-Americ<strong>an</strong> combat<br />
games was akin to the development <strong>of</strong> <strong>Afro</strong>-Americ<strong>an</strong> religions.<br />
Although not much historical evidence exists, foot-fighting techniques seem to have been restricted to<br />
West <strong>an</strong>d East Central Africa <strong>an</strong>d Madagascar. Yet in the case <strong>of</strong> almost universal combat techniques such<br />
as stick fighting there was no necessity for such a specific culture-area proven<strong>an</strong>ce. In both cases creole<br />
slaves unacquainted with specific Afric<strong>an</strong> traditions could learn <strong>an</strong>d practise them without necessarily<br />
adhering to their original me<strong>an</strong>ings.<br />
<strong>The</strong> new social context <strong>of</strong> chattel slavery also resulted in fundamental ch<strong>an</strong>ges that affected not only<br />
fighting techniques or musical accomp<strong>an</strong>iment, but also <strong>an</strong>d above all, their cultural me<strong>an</strong>ing. Combat<br />
games were no longer held for the same reasons <strong>an</strong>d lost m<strong>an</strong>y <strong>of</strong> their former functions. War d<strong>an</strong>ces might<br />
have been used under the exceptional circumst<strong>an</strong>ces <strong>of</strong> slave rebellion, but did not constitute a continuous<br />
tradition that entered popular culture in the Americas—at least not with that me<strong>an</strong>ing. It is therefore<br />
import<strong>an</strong>t to acknowledge not only the new social contexts, but also the new cultural me<strong>an</strong>ings that<br />
developed in pl<strong>an</strong>tation societies, even if the latter are <strong>of</strong>ten hard to specify for the period <strong>of</strong> slavery.