Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art
Create successful ePaper yourself
Turn your PDF publications into a flip-book with our unique Google optimized e-Paper software.
THE CONTEXT OF THE BLACK ATLANTIC 53<br />
Imb<strong>an</strong>gala. 104 With all due respect to the import<strong>an</strong>t fieldwork Desch-Obi carried out, I think that this like<br />
m<strong>an</strong>y other conclusions remains entirely unproven <strong>an</strong>d rather seems to derive from his afrocentric bias to<br />
insist on Afric<strong>an</strong> continuities <strong>an</strong>d homogeneity despite contrary evidence.<br />
If n’golo <strong>an</strong>d its supposed cognates among other groups (for whose existence Desch-Obi does not provide<br />
one single piece <strong>of</strong> evidence) really constituted such a central institution in Western B<strong>an</strong>tu societies <strong>an</strong>d have<br />
always represented a core aspect <strong>of</strong> puberty rituals, why have they not been described by others? Desch-Obi<br />
simply omits that the existing <strong>an</strong>thropological literature does not even acknowledge its existence <strong>an</strong>d that<br />
Esterm<strong>an</strong>n, who witnessed <strong>an</strong>d provided very detailed descriptions <strong>of</strong> puberty rituals among the Ny<strong>an</strong>eka,<br />
does not even mention n’golo, <strong>an</strong>d only refers to wrestling among boys or other forms <strong>of</strong> fighting among<br />
related groups. 105 Other authors highlight different forms <strong>of</strong> combat <strong>an</strong>d d<strong>an</strong>ces associated with rites <strong>of</strong><br />
passage. <strong>The</strong> early twentieth-century description <strong>of</strong> the Ovimbundu by W.D.Hambly, for inst<strong>an</strong>ce, only<br />
refers to wrestling among boys. 106 A more recent study on the Cabinda mentions d<strong>an</strong>ces <strong>an</strong>d fights between<br />
boys <strong>an</strong>d girls, rather th<strong>an</strong> <strong>an</strong>ything similar to n’golo. 107 <strong>The</strong> detailed study <strong>of</strong> the B<strong>an</strong>gala <strong>of</strong> the Upper<br />
Congo River by J.H. Weeks insists on the paramount import<strong>an</strong>ce <strong>of</strong> stick fighting to settle quarrels between<br />
families, towns <strong>an</strong>d even entire districts. 108 All these accounts provide further evidence for the variety <strong>of</strong><br />
combat games <strong>an</strong>d traditions in the Kongo/Angola region. 109 <strong>The</strong>y also lead us to raise a number <strong>of</strong><br />
questions. How widespread was the use <strong>of</strong> kicking <strong>an</strong>d head butts as a separate combat form before <strong>an</strong>d<br />
during the centuries <strong>of</strong> Portuguese colonial rule? How did it evolve in recent years?<br />
T.J.Desch-Obi seems to have overlooked one crucial reference from the Portuguese ethnographer<br />
Augusto Bastos, who wrote in his account <strong>of</strong> the Benguela district at the beginning <strong>of</strong> the twentieth century:<br />
<strong>The</strong> Quilengues have <strong>an</strong> exercise, which they call ómudinhu. It consists in prodigious jumps in<br />
which they throw the legs into the air <strong>an</strong>d the head downwards. It is accomp<strong>an</strong>ied by strong h<strong>an</strong>d<br />
clapping. 110<br />
Bastos’ description provides unique <strong>an</strong>d strong evidence for the existence <strong>of</strong> a combat game with close<br />
formal resembl<strong>an</strong>ce to the kicks in capoeira, but he also seems to make clear that ómudinhu was very<br />
specific to the Quilengues, <strong>an</strong>d not, as Desch-Obi assumes, widely <strong>an</strong>d exclusively practised in the rest <strong>of</strong><br />
the Benguela district.<br />
<strong>The</strong> problem is that there are so m<strong>an</strong>y other possible <strong>an</strong>cestors for capoeira <strong>an</strong>d the other combat games <strong>of</strong><br />
Pl<strong>an</strong>tation America. In 1935, <strong>Art</strong>ur Ramos was already drawing attention on the impact <strong>of</strong> ceremonial<br />
d<strong>an</strong>ces on <strong>Afro</strong>-Brazili<strong>an</strong> folklore <strong>an</strong>d singled out the cufuinha from the Lunda as a possible <strong>an</strong>cestor <strong>of</strong><br />
capoeira. 111 Contrary to most other twentieth-century accounts <strong>of</strong> combat games by Europe<strong>an</strong> observers in<br />
areas already subjected to colonial rule, this war d<strong>an</strong>ce <strong>an</strong>d mock combat has been described in its precolonial<br />
aspect, prior to the integration <strong>of</strong> the Lunda into the Portuguese Empire. We owe this account to<br />
Henrique de Carvalho, a Portuguese soldier, explorer <strong>an</strong>d administrator charged with a diplomatic mission<br />
to the independent Central Afric<strong>an</strong> state <strong>of</strong> Lunda, to obtain a treaty allowing Portuguese establishments in<br />
the area. 112 He reports that cufuinha happened on a number <strong>of</strong> occasions, such as affairs <strong>of</strong> war, pro<strong>of</strong>s <strong>of</strong><br />
courage, the distribution <strong>of</strong> honours <strong>an</strong>d the distribution <strong>of</strong> posts. According to Carvalho, d<strong>an</strong>cing <strong>an</strong>d<br />
jumping on the tips <strong>of</strong> the toes figured prominently in cufuinha, as well as p<strong>an</strong>tomime <strong>an</strong>d mock combat:<br />
<strong>The</strong> one who will d<strong>an</strong>ce, pulls his cloth up, tightening it between his belt <strong>an</strong>d body so that the legs c<strong>an</strong><br />
move freely. He draws his big knife, holds it firm, <strong>an</strong>d then, slightly crouching, with his legs bent <strong>an</strong>d<br />
h<strong>an</strong>dling his knife from one side to the other, some times imitating stabs towards the ground, <strong>an</strong>d<br />
turning his knife either upwards or downwards, d<strong>an</strong>ces in jumps, moving forward <strong>an</strong>d backwards,