The Economics of Desertification, Land Degradation, and Drought

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output—which is a selection of summarized land degradation statuses, processes, and impact indexes within six maps: the Ecosystem Service Status Index (ESSI), the Biophysical Status Index (BSI), the Land Degradation Index (LDI), Goods and Services severely affected, the Biophysical Degradation Index (BDI), and the Land Degradation Impact Index (LDII). The ESSI (Figure 2.14) shows the actual state of goods and services provided by ecosystems, calculated by combining the four biophysical status axes (biomass, soil, water, and biodiversity) and the two socioeconomic status axes (economic and social status). Figure 2.14 shows that Sub-Saharan Africa and Australia both have a low status of ecosystem services. In these two regions, a reduction in ecosystem goods and services (due to land degradation, for example) will have higher negative pressure on population and land than, for example, in Scandinavia, the northwestern United States, and southern Canada, where the ESSI is high. Figure 2.14—Ecosystem Service Status Index, GLADIS Source: Nachtergaele et al. 2010. The BSI (Appendix B, Figure B.3) proceeds similarly to the ESSI, but factors only biophysical variables (status axes of biomass, soil, water, and biodiversity) into the output map, excluding socioeconomic ones. Goods and services severely affected (Appendix B, Figure B.4) represent the most severely affected areas, threatened by a huge decline of goods and services provided by an ecosystem. Therefore, a threshold rule was used that accounts for the critical values of the six axes. 14 This map (Figure 2.15) was superimposed on the overall processes of declining ecosystem services by considering the combined value of each process axis in the radar trend diagram, shown with the LDI (Nachtergaele et al. 2010). In addition to negative impacts, Figure 2.15 also shows improvement of land degradation, as seen in the Sahelian zone in Sub-Saharan Africa; this zone is faced by higher precipitation rates and an upcoming economic performance. 14 Critical values of the six axes: Biomass < 25, Soil < 37.5 (This value coincides with a loss of 25 tons per hectare.), Water < 25, Biodiversity < 25, Economy < 25, Social/Cultural < 25. 28
Figure 2.15—Land Degradation Index (LDI), GLADIS Source: Nachtergaele et al. 2010. The BDI (Figure 2.16), which only incorporates the biophysical axis, shows a more negative picture of land degradation as compared with the LDI. Due to the exclusion of socioeconomic aspects, we may conclude that an improvement of socioeconomic conditions is taking place in several countries, thus lowering land degradation. Yet this predication should be made carefully and with a close reference to every single input within the axis. Figure 2.16—Biophysical Degradation Index (BDI), GLADIS Source: Nachtergaele et al. 2010. 29
Page 1 and 2: IFPRI Discussion Paper 01086 May 20
Page 3 and 4: Contents Abstract vii Acknowledgmen
Page 5 and 6: List of Figures 1.1—Conceptual fr
Page 7 and 8: ABSTRACT Attention to land degradat
Page 9 and 10: ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ADB Asia
Page 11: SCAR Soil Conservation in Agricultu
Page 14 and 15: In the present report, the conceptu
Page 16 and 17: Framework: Confronting Action versu
Page 18 and 19: understand these arrangements in or
Page 20 and 21: Figure 1.3—Prevention, mitigation
Page 22 and 23: on assessments at the micro level (
Page 24 and 25: does not clearly distinguish betwee
Page 26 and 27: Figure 2.1—GLASOD (1991) global a
Page 28 and 29: International Earth Science Informa
Page 30 and 31: Box 2.1—Continued Normalized Diff
Page 32 and 33: Figure 2.4—Loss of annual NPP, GL
Page 34 and 35: Figure 2.7—Annual loss of NPP in
Page 36 and 37: Table 2.2—Nitrogen application ra
Page 38 and 39: Figure 2.12—Areas affected by hum
Page 42 and 43: GLADIS also underlines the linkage
Page 44 and 45: Box 2.2—Continued A map on global
Page 46 and 47: Table 2.3—Global land degradation
Page 48 and 49: Table 2.3—Continued Project and d
Page 50 and 51: Table 2.4—Continued Location 10 2
Page 52 and 53: Table 2.6—Extent and severity of
Page 54 and 55: National Level Policies As discusse
Page 56 and 57: Such support has also been directed
Page 58 and 59: Migration, either as outmigration o
Page 60 and 61: The preceding discussion shows the
Page 62 and 63: Results Correlation Analysis Consis
Page 64 and 65: Figure 2.23—Relationship between
Page 66 and 67: Effects of Land Degradation On-Site
Page 68 and 69: soils and higher land productivity.
Page 70 and 71: Acknowledging the work of GLADIS, a
Page 72 and 73: health, education, security, enviro
Page 74 and 75: Box 3.1—Recent major economic ass
Page 76 and 77: An appropriate economic tool for a
Page 78 and 79: Figure 3.4—Cost of action and cos
Page 80 and 81: enefit—for example, income. This
Page 82 and 83: Figure 3.6—Ecosystem services fra
Page 84 and 85: Replacement Cost Approaches The rep
Page 86 and 87: Box 3.2—Measuring land degradatio
Page 88 and 89: land degradation and conservation m
Page 90 and 91:
Flooding and Aquifer Recharge Richa
Page 92 and 93:
year (Diao and Sarpong 2007). Sonne
Page 94 and 95:
Bringing together the different cos
Page 96 and 97:
This section discusses the most imp
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governing land use patterns (Leeman
Page 100 and 101:
promotion of community forest manag
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Box 4.3—Reducing emissions from d
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Soil Nutrient Depletion Soil nutrie
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that the yields of salt-tolerant wh
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Figure 5.3—Forest area as a perce
Page 110 and 111:
Figure 5.5—Per capita water stora
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Introduction 6. CASE STUDIES Five c
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Salinity The effects of salinity on
Page 116 and 117:
Third, to correctly decide which ac
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Costs of Action and Inaction We eva
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The NGOs and religious organization
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have a strong influence on NRM (And
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We estimated the cost of action (de
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Figure 6.15—Costs of action and i
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Of interest to us is the strategy t
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7. PARTNERSHIP CONCEPT The review o
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degradation. All this should be don
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Finally, the global assessment of D
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the experience of and lessons learn
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Table 7.3—Example of E-DLDD resea
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8. CONCLUSIONS Since the publicatio
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lowest in the region. From a socioe
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Table A.1—Land degradation assess
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Table A.2—Continued Author Region
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Table A.3—Continued Author Countr
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Page 152 and 153:
Page 154 and 155:
Page 156 and 157:
Table A.5—Costs of land degradati
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Figure B.1—Land use systems of th
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REFERENCES Abelson, P. 1979. Cost B
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Benin S., E. Nkonya, G. Okecho, J.
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Clark, E. H. 1985. The Off-Site Cos
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De Jager a., D. Onduru and C. Walag
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Foster, V., and C. Briceño-Garmend
Page 170 and 171:
Holden, S. and H. Lofgren. 2005. As
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Lapar, M. L., and S. Pandey. 1999.
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Nachtergaele, F., M. Petri, R. Bian
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Pender, J. L. 2009. “Food Crisis
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Sauer, J., and H. Tchale. 2006. Alt
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Tan, Z. X., R. Lal, and K. D. Wiebe
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———. 2010. “Assessment of L
Page 187 and 188:
RECENT IFPRI DISCUSSION PAPERS For
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