THE YAKHA: CULTURE, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT IN ...

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fod\ 5 7 GRAZ<strong>IN</strong>G L<strong>AND</strong>S llncdl lec ted & feed &-bedd ing manure 8 FnoA .--- / fuel, building materials, " I urine compost i wool, etc. . - 'ESTOCK- ? manure, draught -, 7 CROPPE ---. , -fed ' FIE. 2.3: Nepalese Hill Agricultural 'Environment' from a Systems Perspective temporal dimension. Assuming the 'environment' to be socially constructed, we need first to ask how the term 'environment' translates in the different cultural context, This was a major problem in the Yakha case, since there was no word in the Yakha language which even approximated the meanings we associate with the term 'environment' in English, The closest equivalent was probably the Nepali varipari. This, when used as a noun, could be broadly translated by the English ' surroundings' . ". The Yakha would want to include in varipari the spirit world (see Chapter Four), other ethnic groups (ti la Barth - see Chapter Three) and also other Yakha clans, lineages and family members with whom they might interact (Chapter Five), For them, the environment was thus intensely 'social', much more so than the 'farming household' in the diagram above
suggests. Varioari for the Yakha would also include the world beyond the immediate confines of Tamaphok. The diagram could thus be criticized for its closure and disregard for the passage out of people and goods (Chapter Seven) and passage in of goods, ideas and people (Chapter Eight). The basis for the rest of this thesis, then, is that 'environment' as perceived by the Yakha was a very different concept to 'environment' as perceived of by many human eco!ogists. If anything, i t was much more akin to the idea of 'social environment' outlined in the previous section. Interaction in the social environment was an important venue for the creation and manipulation of Yakha identity, 2.5 Conclusion This chapter has examined the interest in ecological quest ions amongst anthropologists working in Nepal, and has attempted to show what implications recent paradigm shifts in the study of Himalayan ecology may have on these interests, It has also looked critically at the theoretical perspectives offered by the subdiscipline of ecological anthropoIogy and their relevance for the study of the Yakha. It has called for the need to re-examine the terms on which the discipline of human ecology is based, namely ' peop! e' and their ' environment' , The argument has been made that the two cannot necessarily be so neatly divided, since from the socia! anthropological perspective 'people' are the creators of their 'environment' and conversely the 'environment' is one of the main forums for the creation of ethnic identity. This
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THE YAKHA: CULTURE, ENVIRONMENT AND
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Dedicated to the memory of MART IN
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Without the funding of the ESRC it
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CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: Searching for
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CHAPTER SEVEN: Other Worlds: Inside
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List of Plates After Page P!ate 1:
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, Map I: Nepal, showing location of
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March 1989 and October 1990, in the
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to be social?", friends asked. "Enc
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people whom the project was designe
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was no reason why SEADD (who liked
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presence of institutions at the loc
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I did have the opportunity to under
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(Map 2). We decided to make Kathman
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felt I had scored a small victory o
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Chainpur (see Map 3). It was on the
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primary level teacher at the Tamaph
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quest ions concerned wi th language
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p 5: KHARDEP map of Tamaphok penchy
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to visit during the day. Our own da
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learn the Yakha language, our progr
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week into his palm to cover the ext
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make enquiries. I found out about a
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a research assistant after school.
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to collect a VSO (Voluntary Service
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towns). Demonstrations and strikes
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post-mortem exemfnations could be c
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Kathmandu and elsewhere, and there
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sending to Kathmandu, a lucky find
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Our return to Tamaphok after this w
Page 62 and 63: een his concern: ie there has been
Page 64 and 65: of the ncrude distinction between '
Page 66 and 67: with their environment' ) and ask w
Page 68 and 69: Notes: Chapter One 1. I should expl
Page 70 and 71: higher administrators in Europe, mi
Page 72 and 73: Chapter Two: Ecological Anthropolog
Page 74 and 75: despite long-term involvement in th
Page 76 and 77: This chapter looks at how many of t
Page 78: Poffenberger (1980) sees a direct a
Page 81 and 82: The major variable which Macfarlane
Page 83 and 84: the mindless instigators of denudat
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Page 87 and 88: contradict ions" (Ellen, 1979b: 21,
Page 89 and 90: position which is too broad to be u
Page 91 and 92: Steward was predated by Meggers (19
Page 93 and 94: value of an ecosystemic approach in
Page 95 and 96: small population may be more adapti
Page 97 and 98: describes as ' mangeurs du bois' [e
Page 99 and 100: Rappaport thus argues for the need
Page 101 and 102: eing trivial and dealing only with
Page 103 and 104: What we have, then, is ecological a
Page 105 and 106: Others have suggested that there ma
Page 107 and 108: were unique is to deny an answer to
Page 109 and 110: 1987:86>. Sometimes identity derive
Page 111: and funeral and other ritual obliga
Page 115 and 116: Plate 7: Yakha woman, Kami boy Plat
Page 117 and 118: Certainly Yakha identity, their sen
Page 119 and 120: Bahadur one day; "doesn't it smell
Page 121 and 122: inland, and came into contact with
Page 123 and 124: land amongst kinsmen and adjudicati
Page 125 and 126: part. We shall then go on to look a
Page 127 and 128: settlers was from a pattern of shif
Page 129 and 130: PanciWa t Ankhibhui Maml i ng Tamap
Page 131 and 132: At the local level, the figures for
Page 133 and 134: P6-c Khap~ar (1 it, 'Five Skulls' )
Page 135 and 136: etween the two tribes were to be ta
Page 137 and 138: greater extreme the Yakha of Kingri
Page 139 and 140: People did not seem unduly perturbe
Page 141 and 142: take food, and to whom one could gi
Page 143 and 144: However, despite the influence of c
Page 145 and 146: 1979:53). We were told of two other
Page 148 and 149: circumspection, A particularly stro
Page 150 and 151: striking in terms of the dichotomy
Page 152 and 153: ut never eaten. It should be noted
Page 154 and 155: Dasai-, TihBr, S8un San.krBnti, M B
Page 156: splattered with whitewash, and it o
Page 159 and 160: its scrupulous egalitarianism in ap
Page 161 and 162: In preparation, a large square of c
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practitioner) stepped forward and d
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Tihtir, their distinctive smell bei
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Plate 12: The predh6n v6-c gives Ti
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marked, clockwise from top left, wi
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e honoured, and proceeding through
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would tend to make feeble excuses a
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ice and dahi which had been the mar
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also served. The house was speciall
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there was no simple 'melting pot' a
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not at the material level conceived
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although it has been observed among
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amongst the more sophisticated memb
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Yakha came into Tamaphok in search
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muntum were essentially the same, w
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Sagant (1976:58) admits that "in th
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There were few specific things mark
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arkhi had to be of a different chor
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Plate 16: Chambog dh6ri5 in the mid
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millet would be enough to satisfy a
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pointing down. The next stage was c
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The story of O'B'mi was told to us
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of Tenbe'na was recited as follows:
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such as me,ca cydtj, which were sai
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and Yasokeni, all played to in a ba
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y the religious practitioners who t
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2. Cf, A1 len: "When I arrived in t
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5.2 The Yakha House The house in wh
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whitewash in painting their houses,
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me Porch The porch (omphu) mediated
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in this. People would put small wov
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to a terrace (Plate 20) which overl
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21). Ground level was part animal e
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clans, lineages and familial roles.
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clan. Yet one five-year old girl si
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Despite the origins of the relation
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are no women mentioned apart from K
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due, was to use their kinship term
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number of relationships covered by
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strife and tension. Quite often the
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situation was often only a temporar
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5.4 The Household Economy The expec
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labourers'). Some distinction betwe
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kind of previously cooked snack foo
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parma workers was a source of extra
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een the collaboration of groups of
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Loans, Debts and Indigency We ident
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'traditional' patterns were changin
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suggests, is a trait shared by all
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Kirsten Johnson and her col leagues
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karele variety grown lower down, an
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also said to keep plants such as du
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whereby people and goods came into,
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and September, before the rice plan
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few weeks ear!ier during Dasai-> to
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maize planting time in the beginnin
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y performing a pul to pokta cyao in
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when his parents died, was granted
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trees served as an important fodder
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valley). There was at that time no
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were said to be found where tigers
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causes of forest depletion. Many pe
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family we interviewed could remembe
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ecological basis of the societies i
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However, our over-r id ing impress
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3. The surprise which some anthropo
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Chapter Seven: Inside-Out: Other Wo
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N.R. Shrestha, 1982, 1985a, 1985b;
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usinesses were located near them, T
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Plate 26: Walking through the fores
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Adding to the sense of Basantapur a
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Plate 28: Sansare Mude bazaar Plate
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Khola valley and to the Himalaya, a
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Annual Fairs In addition to the reg
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verses, these were not generally kn
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8 Tapai- arth ffarnuhos (Promise yo
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problems, The fundamental importanc
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in the district. In our studies of
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clothing from abroad was much in ev
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friend of his. This annual military
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Pakistan war and remembered the con
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everyone, As potential wage labour
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service and bought land in the same
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money paid agents in Kathmandu who
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people concerned, and how the outsi
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and this, perhaps, made marriage ac
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jerked by the strings of broader so
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is ...p rimarily due to the growth
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Sanskritizat ion had been part of Y
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Plate 30: Listening to music Plate
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as a backwater, everyone agreed tha
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students coming from some distance
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For students in ward 9, Okhre-Bhote
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The teachers also administered a sc
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the school. The curriculum followed
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see the spatial relationship betwee
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King Mahendra in 1960 after he accu
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Plate 32: Pradhen P8-c issuing citi
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Outside, people started getting exc
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muscle with regard to its de jure c
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after festivals and somewhat lackad
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As well as the ANM, a students' ass
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Ths school was a central forum for
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of the po!itical struggle, despite
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the ambiguously regarded superpower
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of their shop with stout wooden pla
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section looks briefly at how these
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for individuals within the prevaili
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particular ward, Books and other me
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e overturned: the visiting BNMT wor
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wondered whether everyone was likel
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that, with his influence, a nascent
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Newang, President of the Front. (Hi
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I argued, are particu!arly pertinen
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Yakha, I have produced a text which
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Kathmandu where she enrolled in Eng
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a'wa a a achia ach~ tamum ach~ tapu
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ha emabu bhasnik bhusudna ca came c
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dukka mene jogan duna duna du-ru Da
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i , kma i , mma ka 'nir~o kacek kam
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leema lesnchi le.pma le,kma le*r]ma
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Plate 35: The Maya Khola valley
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pha 'me phak pharog phamne pha* bu
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uc un ucumphakr]a uha uhaoma ukma u
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Appendix I1 Interview Schedule (The
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Annual production: rice, maize, mil
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Adhikary, K. R, 1988,
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Brown, C. H. 1984. Languages and Li
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Doherty, V. S. 1975. Kinship and Ec
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Hitchcock, J , 1961, A Nepalese hil
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--- 1986b. Human Imapct on Some For
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Orlove, B. S. 1980. Ecological Anth
Page 430 and 431:
Shrestha, K. 1984. Nepal i Names fo
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White, L.A, 1959. TheEvolutfon of C
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