THE YAKHA: CULTURE, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT IN ...

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--- 1986b. Human Imapct on Some Forests of the Middle Hills of Nepal. Part 2# Some Major Human Impacts Before 1950 on the Forests of Sindhu Palchok and Kabhre Palanchok. Mountain Research and Development, 6(4), 325-334. Ma1 inowski, B. [ 19221 1950. Argonauts of the Western Pacific: an Account of Native Enterprise and Adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea. London: Rout ledge. 1935. Coral Gardens and their Magic: a Study of the Methods of Ti1 l ing the Soi 1 and of Agricultural Rites in the Trobriand Islands (Vols, 1 & 2). London: George Allen & Unwin. Manzardo, A,E. 1982, Impression Management and Economic Growth: the Case of the Thakalis of Dhaulagiri Zone. Kailash, 9(1), 45-60. Marcus, G. E. and M. J. Fischer 1986. Anthropology as Cul tural Critique: an Experimen tal Moment in the Human Sciences. London: Chicago University Press. Margalef , R. 1968. Perspectives in Ecological Theory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Marret t , R. R. 1912. Anthropology. London: Thornton But terworth. Mazess, R. B. 1975. Biological Adaptat ion: Aptitudes and Acclimatization, In Biosocial Interrelations in Population Adaptation, E, S. Watts, F, E. Johnston and G. W. Lasker (eds. ) , Chicago: Aldine. (Originally published 1973, The Hague: Mouton), Meerendonk, M. 1960. Basic Gurkhali Dictionary (Roman Script) (Reprinted 1986, Folkestone: Bailey Brothers and Swinfen). Meggers, B.J. 1954. Environmental Limitations on the Development of Culture. American Anthropologist, 56, 801-824. Meilleur, B.A. 1987, Des ethnosciences 8 l'ethnokcologie ou du role des represkntations kcologiques populaires dans des soci6tks traditionnelles. Ecologie Humaine, 5(2): 3-23. Messerschmidt, D. A. 1976a, The Gurungs of Nepal: Conflict and Change in a Village Society. Warminster: Aris and Phillips. -- 1976b. Ecological Change and Adaptation among the Gurungs of the Nepal Himalaya, Human Ecology, 4(2) : 167-185. --- 1981. Nogar. Human Organization. 40(1): 40-7. ---- 1982. The Thakali of Nepal: Continuity and Socio-Cultural Change, Ethnohistory, 29(4), 265-80. Metzger, D. & G. Williams, 1966. Some Procedures and'Results in the Study of Native Categories: Tzeltal 'Firewood'. American An thropologist, 68, 389-407.
Miller, C, J, 1979. Faith Healers in the Himalayas: an Investigation of Traditional Healers and their Festivals in Dolakha District of Nepal. Kjrtipur: CNAS. (Reprinted 1987, Kathmandu: Sehayogi Press>. Moddie, A.D. 1981, Himalayan Environment. In The Himalaya: Aspects of Change, J.S, Lell (ed.), Bombay: Oxford University Pressa Molnar, A. 1981. Economic Strategies and Ecological Constraints: Case of the Kham Magar of North West Nepal. In Asian Highland Societies in Anthropological Perspective, C, von FUrer-Haimendorf (ed.). New Delhi: Sterling. Montgomery, E, 1977. Human Ecology and the Population Concept: the Yelnadu Reddi Population in India. American Ethnologis, 4(1), 175- 89, Morris, C. J, C 19331 1985. The Gurkhas: an Ethnology. Delhi: B. R. Publishing Corporation, [Original published as Handbooks for the Indian Army: Gorkhasl , Mosko, M,S. 1987. The Symbols of 'Forest': A Structural Analysis of Mbuti Culture and Social Organization. American Anthropologist, 89(4). 896-913. Myers, N. 1986. Environmental Repercussions of Deforestation in the Himalayas. Joural of World Forest Resource Management, 2, 63-72, Nepal Press Digest 1990. Autonomy Demanded for Limbuwan. Nepal Press Digest, 3(22): 220. Netting, R. M'C. 1974. Agrarian Ecology, Annual Review of Anthropology, 3, 21-56. -- 1977. Cul tural Ecology. Menlo Park; Benjamin/Curnmins, Northey) W. B. and C. J , Morris C 19271 1987. The Gurkhas: Their Manners, Customs and Country, New Delhi: Cosmo Publications. Nowicki, P, 1985. Cul tural Ecology and ' Management' of Natural Resources, or Knowing when not to Meddle. In Cul ture and Conserva t ion: the Human Dimension in Envi ronmen ta 1 Planning, J , A. McNeel y h D, Pi t t (eds. ) , London: Croom Helm, ODA (Overseas Development Administration) 1986. Nepal-Kosi Hills Community Forestry Project Memorandum (Revised version, 13th November) . London: ODA (mi meo) . Odum, H. T. 1971. Environment, Power and Society, New York: Wi ley, Okada, F.E. 1957, Ritual Brotherhood: a Cohesive Factor in Nepalese Society. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 13, 2 12-22.
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THE YAKHA: CULTURE, ENVIRONMENT AND
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Dedicated to the memory of MART IN
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Without the funding of the ESRC it
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CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: Searching for
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CHAPTER SEVEN: Other Worlds: Inside
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List of Plates After Page P!ate 1:
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, Map I: Nepal, showing location of
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March 1989 and October 1990, in the
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to be social?", friends asked. "Enc
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people whom the project was designe
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was no reason why SEADD (who liked
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presence of institutions at the loc
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I did have the opportunity to under
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(Map 2). We decided to make Kathman
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felt I had scored a small victory o
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Chainpur (see Map 3). It was on the
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primary level teacher at the Tamaph
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quest ions concerned wi th language
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p 5: KHARDEP map of Tamaphok penchy
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to visit during the day. Our own da
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learn the Yakha language, our progr
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week into his palm to cover the ext
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make enquiries. I found out about a
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a research assistant after school.
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to collect a VSO (Voluntary Service
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towns). Demonstrations and strikes
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post-mortem exemfnations could be c
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Kathmandu and elsewhere, and there
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sending to Kathmandu, a lucky find
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Our return to Tamaphok after this w
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een his concern: ie there has been
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of the ncrude distinction between '
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with their environment' ) and ask w
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Notes: Chapter One 1. I should expl
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higher administrators in Europe, mi
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Chapter Two: Ecological Anthropolog
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despite long-term involvement in th
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This chapter looks at how many of t
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Poffenberger (1980) sees a direct a
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The major variable which Macfarlane
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the mindless instigators of denudat
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ather than regularities in the phen
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contradict ions" (Ellen, 1979b: 21,
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position which is too broad to be u
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Steward was predated by Meggers (19
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value of an ecosystemic approach in
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small population may be more adapti
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describes as ' mangeurs du bois' [e
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Rappaport thus argues for the need
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eing trivial and dealing only with
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What we have, then, is ecological a
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Others have suggested that there ma
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were unique is to deny an answer to
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1987:86>. Sometimes identity derive
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and funeral and other ritual obliga
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suggests. Varioari for the Yakha wo
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Plate 7: Yakha woman, Kami boy Plat
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Certainly Yakha identity, their sen
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Bahadur one day; "doesn't it smell
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inland, and came into contact with
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land amongst kinsmen and adjudicati
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part. We shall then go on to look a
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settlers was from a pattern of shif
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PanciWa t Ankhibhui Maml i ng Tamap
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At the local level, the figures for
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P6-c Khap~ar (1 it, 'Five Skulls' )
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etween the two tribes were to be ta
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greater extreme the Yakha of Kingri
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People did not seem unduly perturbe
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take food, and to whom one could gi
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However, despite the influence of c
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1979:53). We were told of two other
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circumspection, A particularly stro
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striking in terms of the dichotomy
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ut never eaten. It should be noted
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Dasai-, TihBr, S8un San.krBnti, M B
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splattered with whitewash, and it o
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its scrupulous egalitarianism in ap
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In preparation, a large square of c
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practitioner) stepped forward and d
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Tihtir, their distinctive smell bei
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Plate 12: The predh6n v6-c gives Ti
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marked, clockwise from top left, wi
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e honoured, and proceeding through
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would tend to make feeble excuses a
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ice and dahi which had been the mar
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also served. The house was speciall
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there was no simple 'melting pot' a
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not at the material level conceived
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although it has been observed among
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amongst the more sophisticated memb
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Yakha came into Tamaphok in search
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muntum were essentially the same, w
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Sagant (1976:58) admits that "in th
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There were few specific things mark
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arkhi had to be of a different chor
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Plate 16: Chambog dh6ri5 in the mid
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millet would be enough to satisfy a
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pointing down. The next stage was c
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The story of O'B'mi was told to us
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of Tenbe'na was recited as follows:
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such as me,ca cydtj, which were sai
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and Yasokeni, all played to in a ba
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y the religious practitioners who t
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2. Cf, A1 len: "When I arrived in t
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5.2 The Yakha House The house in wh
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whitewash in painting their houses,
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me Porch The porch (omphu) mediated
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in this. People would put small wov
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to a terrace (Plate 20) which overl
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21). Ground level was part animal e
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clans, lineages and familial roles.
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clan. Yet one five-year old girl si
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Despite the origins of the relation
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are no women mentioned apart from K
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due, was to use their kinship term
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number of relationships covered by
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strife and tension. Quite often the
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situation was often only a temporar
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5.4 The Household Economy The expec
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labourers'). Some distinction betwe
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kind of previously cooked snack foo
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parma workers was a source of extra
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een the collaboration of groups of
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Loans, Debts and Indigency We ident
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'traditional' patterns were changin
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suggests, is a trait shared by all
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Kirsten Johnson and her col leagues
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karele variety grown lower down, an
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also said to keep plants such as du
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whereby people and goods came into,
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and September, before the rice plan
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few weeks ear!ier during Dasai-> to
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maize planting time in the beginnin
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y performing a pul to pokta cyao in
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when his parents died, was granted
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trees served as an important fodder
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valley). There was at that time no
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were said to be found where tigers
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causes of forest depletion. Many pe
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family we interviewed could remembe
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ecological basis of the societies i
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However, our over-r id ing impress
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3. The surprise which some anthropo
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Chapter Seven: Inside-Out: Other Wo
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N.R. Shrestha, 1982, 1985a, 1985b;
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usinesses were located near them, T
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Plate 26: Walking through the fores
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Adding to the sense of Basantapur a
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Plate 28: Sansare Mude bazaar Plate
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Khola valley and to the Himalaya, a
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Annual Fairs In addition to the reg
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verses, these were not generally kn
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8 Tapai- arth ffarnuhos (Promise yo
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problems, The fundamental importanc
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in the district. In our studies of
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clothing from abroad was much in ev
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friend of his. This annual military
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Pakistan war and remembered the con
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everyone, As potential wage labour
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service and bought land in the same
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money paid agents in Kathmandu who
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people concerned, and how the outsi
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and this, perhaps, made marriage ac
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jerked by the strings of broader so
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is ...p rimarily due to the growth
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Sanskritizat ion had been part of Y
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Plate 30: Listening to music Plate
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as a backwater, everyone agreed tha
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students coming from some distance
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For students in ward 9, Okhre-Bhote
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The teachers also administered a sc
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the school. The curriculum followed
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see the spatial relationship betwee
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King Mahendra in 1960 after he accu
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Plate 32: Pradhen P8-c issuing citi
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Outside, people started getting exc
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muscle with regard to its de jure c
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after festivals and somewhat lackad
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As well as the ANM, a students' ass
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Ths school was a central forum for
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of the po!itical struggle, despite
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the ambiguously regarded superpower
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of their shop with stout wooden pla
Page 375 and 376: section looks briefly at how these
Page 377 and 378: for individuals within the prevaili
Page 379 and 380: particular ward, Books and other me
Page 381 and 382: e overturned: the visiting BNMT wor
Page 383 and 384: wondered whether everyone was likel
Page 385 and 386: that, with his influence, a nascent
Page 387 and 388: Newang, President of the Front. (Hi
Page 389 and 390: I argued, are particu!arly pertinen
Page 391 and 392: Yakha, I have produced a text which
Page 393 and 394: Kathmandu where she enrolled in Eng
Page 395 and 396: a'wa a a achia ach~ tamum ach~ tapu
Page 397 and 398: ha emabu bhasnik bhusudna ca came c
Page 399 and 400: dukka mene jogan duna duna du-ru Da
Page 401 and 402: i , kma i , mma ka 'nir~o kacek kam
Page 403 and 404: leema lesnchi le.pma le,kma le*r]ma
Page 405 and 406: Plate 35: The Maya Khola valley
Page 407 and 408: pha 'me phak pharog phamne pha* bu
Page 409 and 410: uc un ucumphakr]a uha uhaoma ukma u
Page 411 and 412: Appendix I1 Interview Schedule (The
Page 413 and 414: Annual production: rice, maize, mil
Page 417 and 418: BIBLIOGRAPHY Adhikary, K. R, 1988,
Page 419 and 420: Brown, C. H. 1984. Languages and Li
Page 421 and 422: Doherty, V. S. 1975. Kinship and Ec
Page 424 and 425: Hitchcock, J , 1961, A Nepalese hil
Page 428 and 429: Orlove, B. S. 1980. Ecological Anth
Page 430 and 431: Shrestha, K. 1984. Nepal i Names fo
Page 432: White, L.A, 1959. TheEvolutfon of C
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