THE YAKHA: CULTURE, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT IN ...

More documents

Recommendations

Info

Acknowledgements My wife, Tamara Kohn, has been an integral part of the research process and has given me inestimable amounts of help, advice and care at every stage in the past five years, which I thank her for sharing with me. I have benefited enormously from the sensitive and helpfu! supervision of Drs Nick Allen and Vernon Reynolds at Oxford. Drs Sean Con1 in and Rosalind Eyben in the (now) Social Development Department of the ODA in London were a!so both extremely generous with their time as my research got under way. Drs Fichael Hutt and David Watthews of the School of Oriental and African Studies in London were excellent Nepali language teachers as I prepared to go to the field. I would 1 ike to thank our many friends and colleagues in Kathmandu for their support and hospitality. In particular I think of S.P, Koirala and his fami!y, Chhote and Gayatri Rauniyar, Ben Campbe!!, Charles Ramble, Anne de Sales, Christine Daniels, Kate Molesworth- Storer, Frances St~venson, Jon Lane, Carrie Osborne, Martin Gaenszle, Betty Woodsend and Emil Wende!, Peter Woss and his staff at the British Council were always exceptionally generous with their time and facilities. Dr Ratna Wan Pradhan and Mrs Mangala Shrestha at Tribhuvan University were very helpful in processing our non-tourist visas, as were staff in the relevant government departments. I would like to thank Di l! i Ram Dahal and Nirmal Tuladhar at the Centre for Nepa! and Asian Studies for their useful advice. Kamal Adhikary was extremely generous in inviting us to his family's home, and to his fieldwork village in West Nepal, and we have valued his friendship ever since. ! am forever indebted to the many inhabitants of Tarnaphok who welcomed us into their community. I would especially like to thank our 'family' there, Budhilal Linkha (Apa) and his wife (Ama). 01ur 'sister', Kamala, was our research assistant and remains our dearest friend. I am also most grateful to Bhim Bahadur Linkha for his excellent research assistance, and Dharkulal {'Chamba') Linkha, who shared with us his knowledge of the Yakha mun turn. Other friends remembered with happiness and grat i t ude include Bhaskar and Sharada Ghirnire, Dsmbaru Dungana, Dllndiraj Satyal and the rest of the staff at Sri Chamunde Secondary School, We were also helped by Agam Bahadur Linkha and his family, Shiva La1 Dhami, Harkar Bahadl~r Jimi, Bimala Gajamer and her family, Majhiys Man Bahadur Jimi and his family in Madi Mcrlkharka, and Hamjee Kongren and his family in Dandagaon. A!so in the Eastern region we valued the friendship and warm company of Colin Sox, B-J Souffard, Chris Vickery, Jackie Howe!!, Lorna and John Howel 1 , Jennifer and Andy Cox, Jean-Marion Ai t ken, Sue Det t 1 ing, Hi lary Klonin and Juan Ortiz-Iruri. ! also owe thanks to the staff of the 'K3' project In Dhankuta and Pakhribas Agricul tural Centre for the help they gave us on our scheduled visits to their institutions, and to the staff of the (now) Eastern Regional Hospital in Dharsn for the impeccable care they gave us on our unscheduled visits to theirs, Many friends and colleagues in the lJ.K, and other parts of the world have been involved in variol~s stages of the research process. Simon Baron-Cohen and Bridget Lindley were involved from the very beginning, while later I would like to thank Steven Holl~nd, Rachel Williams, David Mosse, .Tul i~ Cleeves-MOSSFL, David Gel 1ner , Claudia Pendred, Mark Pittaway, Alison Williams, and Chris Burgess. Judith Justice and Mary Des Chene have been particularly helpfu! in keeping me in touch with Nepalese research in the U.S.A.
Without the funding of the ESRC it is doubtful whether this research would ever have taken place, or have been finished so quickly. Wolfson College has also given me support for research expenses. I would sincerely like to thank my new colleagl_res at the University of Durham for their patience and support as I finished writing up. fly mother, Val Russel 1 , has a 1 ways been support i ve of my endeavours, as have Tamara's parents, Misch and Lore Kohn. I extend my warmest thanks to our families on both sides of the Atlantic. Last but not least, ! would like to thank my son Fen who appe~red on the scene for the f ina! year of 'writing up' and ensured I always kept the demands of my thesis in perspective.
Page 1 and 2: THE YAKHA: CULTURE, ENVIRONMENT AND
Page 3: Dedicated to the memory of MART IN
Page 7 and 8: CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: Searching for
Page 9 and 10: CHAPTER SEVEN: Other Worlds: Inside
Page 11 and 12: List of Plates After Page P!ate 1:
Page 13 and 14: , Map I: Nepal, showing location of
Page 15 and 16: March 1989 and October 1990, in the
Page 17 and 18: to be social?", friends asked. "Enc
Page 19 and 20: people whom the project was designe
Page 21 and 22: was no reason why SEADD (who liked
Page 23 and 24: presence of institutions at the loc
Page 25 and 26: I did have the opportunity to under
Page 27 and 28: (Map 2). We decided to make Kathman
Page 29 and 30: felt I had scored a small victory o
Page 31 and 32: Chainpur (see Map 3). It was on the
Page 33 and 34: primary level teacher at the Tamaph
Page 35 and 36: quest ions concerned wi th language
Page 37 and 38: p 5: KHARDEP map of Tamaphok penchy
Page 39 and 40: to visit during the day. Our own da
Page 41 and 42: learn the Yakha language, our progr
Page 43 and 44: week into his palm to cover the ext
Page 45 and 46: make enquiries. I found out about a
Page 47 and 48: a research assistant after school.
Page 49 and 50: to collect a VSO (Voluntary Service
Page 52 and 53: towns). Demonstrations and strikes
Page 54 and 55:
post-mortem exemfnations could be c
Page 56 and 57:
Kathmandu and elsewhere, and there
Page 58 and 59:
sending to Kathmandu, a lucky find
Page 60 and 61:
Our return to Tamaphok after this w
Page 62 and 63:
een his concern: ie there has been
Page 64 and 65:
of the ncrude distinction between '
Page 66 and 67:
with their environment' ) and ask w
Page 68 and 69:
Notes: Chapter One 1. I should expl
Page 70 and 71:
higher administrators in Europe, mi
Page 72 and 73:
Chapter Two: Ecological Anthropolog
Page 74 and 75:
despite long-term involvement in th
Page 76 and 77:
This chapter looks at how many of t
Page 78:
Poffenberger (1980) sees a direct a
Page 81 and 82:
The major variable which Macfarlane
Page 83 and 84:
the mindless instigators of denudat
Page 85 and 86:
ather than regularities in the phen
Page 87 and 88:
contradict ions" (Ellen, 1979b: 21,
Page 89 and 90:
position which is too broad to be u
Page 91 and 92:
Steward was predated by Meggers (19
Page 93 and 94:
value of an ecosystemic approach in
Page 95 and 96:
small population may be more adapti
Page 97 and 98:
describes as ' mangeurs du bois' [e
Page 99 and 100:
Rappaport thus argues for the need
Page 101 and 102:
eing trivial and dealing only with
Page 103 and 104:
What we have, then, is ecological a
Page 105 and 106:
Others have suggested that there ma
Page 107 and 108:
were unique is to deny an answer to
Page 109 and 110:
1987:86>. Sometimes identity derive
Page 111 and 112:
and funeral and other ritual obliga
Page 113 and 114:
suggests. Varioari for the Yakha wo
Page 115 and 116:
Plate 7: Yakha woman, Kami boy Plat
Page 117 and 118:
Certainly Yakha identity, their sen
Page 119 and 120:
Bahadur one day; "doesn't it smell
Page 121 and 122:
inland, and came into contact with
Page 123 and 124:
land amongst kinsmen and adjudicati
Page 125 and 126:
part. We shall then go on to look a
Page 127 and 128:
settlers was from a pattern of shif
Page 129 and 130:
PanciWa t Ankhibhui Maml i ng Tamap
Page 131 and 132:
At the local level, the figures for
Page 133 and 134:
P6-c Khap~ar (1 it, 'Five Skulls' )
Page 135 and 136:
etween the two tribes were to be ta
Page 137 and 138:
greater extreme the Yakha of Kingri
Page 139 and 140:
People did not seem unduly perturbe
Page 141 and 142:
take food, and to whom one could gi
Page 143 and 144:
However, despite the influence of c
Page 145 and 146:
1979:53). We were told of two other
Page 148 and 149:
circumspection, A particularly stro
Page 150 and 151:
striking in terms of the dichotomy
Page 152 and 153:
ut never eaten. It should be noted
Page 154 and 155:
Dasai-, TihBr, S8un San.krBnti, M B
Page 156:
splattered with whitewash, and it o
Page 159 and 160:
its scrupulous egalitarianism in ap
Page 161 and 162:
In preparation, a large square of c
Page 163 and 164:
practitioner) stepped forward and d
Page 165 and 166:
Tihtir, their distinctive smell bei
Page 167 and 168:
Plate 12: The predh6n v6-c gives Ti
Page 169 and 170:
marked, clockwise from top left, wi
Page 171 and 172:
e honoured, and proceeding through
Page 173 and 174:
would tend to make feeble excuses a
Page 175 and 176:
ice and dahi which had been the mar
Page 177 and 178:
also served. The house was speciall
Page 179 and 180:
there was no simple 'melting pot' a
Page 181 and 182:
not at the material level conceived
Page 183 and 184:
although it has been observed among
Page 185 and 186:
amongst the more sophisticated memb
Page 188 and 189:
Yakha came into Tamaphok in search
Page 190 and 191:
muntum were essentially the same, w
Page 192 and 193:
Sagant (1976:58) admits that "in th
Page 194 and 195:
There were few specific things mark
Page 196 and 197:
arkhi had to be of a different chor
Page 198 and 199:
Plate 16: Chambog dh6ri5 in the mid
Page 200 and 201:
millet would be enough to satisfy a
Page 202 and 203:
pointing down. The next stage was c
Page 204:
The story of O'B'mi was told to us
Page 207 and 208:
of Tenbe'na was recited as follows:
Page 209 and 210:
such as me,ca cydtj, which were sai
Page 211 and 212:
and Yasokeni, all played to in a ba
Page 213 and 214:
y the religious practitioners who t
Page 215 and 216:
2. Cf, A1 len: "When I arrived in t
Page 217 and 218:
5.2 The Yakha House The house in wh
Page 219 and 220:
whitewash in painting their houses,
Page 221 and 222:
me Porch The porch (omphu) mediated
Page 223 and 224:
in this. People would put small wov
Page 225 and 226:
to a terrace (Plate 20) which overl
Page 227 and 228:
21). Ground level was part animal e
Page 229 and 230:
clans, lineages and familial roles.
Page 231 and 232:
clan. Yet one five-year old girl si
Page 233 and 234:
Despite the origins of the relation
Page 235 and 236:
are no women mentioned apart from K
Page 237 and 238:
due, was to use their kinship term
Page 239 and 240:
number of relationships covered by
Page 241 and 242:
strife and tension. Quite often the
Page 243 and 244:
situation was often only a temporar
Page 245 and 246:
5.4 The Household Economy The expec
Page 247 and 248:
labourers'). Some distinction betwe
Page 249 and 250:
kind of previously cooked snack foo
Page 251 and 252:
parma workers was a source of extra
Page 253 and 254:
een the collaboration of groups of
Page 255 and 256:
Loans, Debts and Indigency We ident
Page 257 and 258:
'traditional' patterns were changin
Page 259 and 260:
suggests, is a trait shared by all
Page 261 and 262:
Kirsten Johnson and her col leagues
Page 263 and 264:
karele variety grown lower down, an
Page 265 and 266:
also said to keep plants such as du
Page 267 and 268:
whereby people and goods came into,
Page 269 and 270:
and September, before the rice plan
Page 271 and 272:
few weeks ear!ier during Dasai-> to
Page 273 and 274:
maize planting time in the beginnin
Page 275 and 276:
y performing a pul to pokta cyao in
Page 277 and 278:
when his parents died, was granted
Page 279 and 280:
trees served as an important fodder
Page 281 and 282:
valley). There was at that time no
Page 283 and 284:
were said to be found where tigers
Page 285 and 286:
causes of forest depletion. Many pe
Page 287 and 288:
family we interviewed could remembe
Page 289 and 290:
ecological basis of the societies i
Page 291 and 292:
However, our over-r id ing impress
Page 293 and 294:
3. The surprise which some anthropo
Page 295 and 296:
Chapter Seven: Inside-Out: Other Wo
Page 297 and 298:
N.R. Shrestha, 1982, 1985a, 1985b;
Page 299 and 300:
usinesses were located near them, T
Page 301 and 302:
Plate 26: Walking through the fores
Page 303 and 304:
Adding to the sense of Basantapur a
Page 305 and 306:
Plate 28: Sansare Mude bazaar Plate
Page 307 and 308:
Khola valley and to the Himalaya, a
Page 309 and 310:
Annual Fairs In addition to the reg
Page 311 and 312:
verses, these were not generally kn
Page 313 and 314:
8 Tapai- arth ffarnuhos (Promise yo
Page 315 and 316:
problems, The fundamental importanc
Page 317 and 318:
in the district. In our studies of
Page 319 and 320:
clothing from abroad was much in ev
Page 321 and 322:
friend of his. This annual military
Page 323 and 324:
Pakistan war and remembered the con
Page 325 and 326:
everyone, As potential wage labour
Page 327 and 328:
service and bought land in the same
Page 329 and 330:
money paid agents in Kathmandu who
Page 331 and 332:
people concerned, and how the outsi
Page 333 and 334:
and this, perhaps, made marriage ac
Page 335 and 336:
jerked by the strings of broader so
Page 337 and 338:
is ...p rimarily due to the growth
Page 339 and 340:
Sanskritizat ion had been part of Y
Page 341 and 342:
Plate 30: Listening to music Plate
Page 343 and 344:
as a backwater, everyone agreed tha
Page 345 and 346:
students coming from some distance
Page 347 and 348:
For students in ward 9, Okhre-Bhote
Page 349 and 350:
The teachers also administered a sc
Page 351 and 352:
the school. The curriculum followed
Page 353 and 354:
see the spatial relationship betwee
Page 355 and 356:
King Mahendra in 1960 after he accu
Page 357 and 358:
Plate 32: Pradhen P8-c issuing citi
Page 359 and 360:
Outside, people started getting exc
Page 361 and 362:
muscle with regard to its de jure c
Page 363 and 364:
after festivals and somewhat lackad
Page 365 and 366:
As well as the ANM, a students' ass
Page 367 and 368:
Ths school was a central forum for
Page 369 and 370:
of the po!itical struggle, despite
Page 371 and 372:
the ambiguously regarded superpower
Page 373 and 374:
of their shop with stout wooden pla
Page 375 and 376:
section looks briefly at how these
Page 377 and 378:
for individuals within the prevaili
Page 379 and 380:
particular ward, Books and other me
Page 381 and 382:
e overturned: the visiting BNMT wor
Page 383 and 384:
wondered whether everyone was likel
Page 385 and 386:
that, with his influence, a nascent
Page 387 and 388:
Newang, President of the Front. (Hi
Page 389 and 390:
I argued, are particu!arly pertinen
Page 391 and 392:
Yakha, I have produced a text which
Page 393 and 394:
Kathmandu where she enrolled in Eng
Page 395 and 396:
a'wa a a achia ach~ tamum ach~ tapu
Page 397 and 398:
ha emabu bhasnik bhusudna ca came c
Page 399 and 400:
dukka mene jogan duna duna du-ru Da
Page 401 and 402:
i , kma i , mma ka 'nir~o kacek kam
Page 403 and 404:
leema lesnchi le.pma le,kma le*r]ma
Page 405 and 406:
Plate 35: The Maya Khola valley
Page 407 and 408:
pha 'me phak pharog phamne pha* bu
Page 409 and 410:
uc un ucumphakr]a uha uhaoma ukma u
Page 411 and 412:
Appendix I1 Interview Schedule (The
Page 413 and 414:
Annual production: rice, maize, mil
Page 417 and 418:
BIBLIOGRAPHY Adhikary, K. R, 1988,
Page 419 and 420:
Brown, C. H. 1984. Languages and Li
Page 421 and 422:
Doherty, V. S. 1975. Kinship and Ec
Page 424 and 425:
Hitchcock, J , 1961, A Nepalese hil
Page 426 and 427:
--- 1986b. Human Imapct on Some For
Page 428 and 429:
Orlove, B. S. 1980. Ecological Anth
Page 430 and 431:
Shrestha, K. 1984. Nepal i Names fo
Page 432:
White, L.A, 1959. TheEvolutfon of C
show all

THE YAKHA: CULTURE, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT IN ...

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?