THE YAKHA: CULTURE, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT IN ...

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chapter has offered a necessary theoretical background and has raised questions which the following ethnographic chapters address. Notes: Chapter Two 1. For an interesting account of this process, see Sandbach (1980). 2, For example Tilman 1952; Eckholm 1975, 1976; Rieger 1978/9; Bhattarai 1979; USAID 1980; Calkins 1981; Blalkie et a1 1980; La11 and Moddie 1981; US Academy of Sciences 1981; Seddon 1983; Myers 1986, 3, For example, Wallace reports that between 1976 and 1985 more than $189 million was spent or promised as foreign aid for reforestation in Nepal (1981). Carter lists no fewer than 68 organisations involved in forestry in the country (1987). 4. I treat 'ecological anthropology' , ' human ecology' and 'cultural ecology' synonymously in this thesis. 5. It seems to me the western concept of 'environment' has acquired characteristics akin to Ellen's analysis of a fetish (1988>, an idea I plan to make the subject of a separate paper. Otherwise 'environment' In English should be synonymous with 'surroundings', which it clearly is not.
Plate 7: Yakha woman, Kami boy Plate 8: Three generations of Yakhe
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THE YAKHA: CULTURE, ENVIRONMENT AND
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Dedicated to the memory of MART IN
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Without the funding of the ESRC it
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CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: Searching for
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CHAPTER SEVEN: Other Worlds: Inside
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List of Plates After Page P!ate 1:
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, Map I: Nepal, showing location of
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March 1989 and October 1990, in the
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to be social?", friends asked. "Enc
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people whom the project was designe
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was no reason why SEADD (who liked
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presence of institutions at the loc
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I did have the opportunity to under
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(Map 2). We decided to make Kathman
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felt I had scored a small victory o
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Chainpur (see Map 3). It was on the
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primary level teacher at the Tamaph
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quest ions concerned wi th language
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p 5: KHARDEP map of Tamaphok penchy
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to visit during the day. Our own da
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learn the Yakha language, our progr
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week into his palm to cover the ext
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make enquiries. I found out about a
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a research assistant after school.
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to collect a VSO (Voluntary Service
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towns). Demonstrations and strikes
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post-mortem exemfnations could be c
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Kathmandu and elsewhere, and there
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sending to Kathmandu, a lucky find
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Our return to Tamaphok after this w
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een his concern: ie there has been
Page 64 and 65: of the ncrude distinction between '
Page 66 and 67: with their environment' ) and ask w
Page 68 and 69: Notes: Chapter One 1. I should expl
Page 70 and 71: higher administrators in Europe, mi
Page 72 and 73: Chapter Two: Ecological Anthropolog
Page 74 and 75: despite long-term involvement in th
Page 76 and 77: This chapter looks at how many of t
Page 78: Poffenberger (1980) sees a direct a
Page 81 and 82: The major variable which Macfarlane
Page 83 and 84: the mindless instigators of denudat
Page 85 and 86: ather than regularities in the phen
Page 87 and 88: contradict ions" (Ellen, 1979b: 21,
Page 89 and 90: position which is too broad to be u
Page 91 and 92: Steward was predated by Meggers (19
Page 93 and 94: value of an ecosystemic approach in
Page 95 and 96: small population may be more adapti
Page 97 and 98: describes as ' mangeurs du bois' [e
Page 99 and 100: Rappaport thus argues for the need
Page 101 and 102: eing trivial and dealing only with
Page 103 and 104: What we have, then, is ecological a
Page 105 and 106: Others have suggested that there ma
Page 107 and 108: were unique is to deny an answer to
Page 109 and 110: 1987:86>. Sometimes identity derive
Page 111 and 112: and funeral and other ritual obliga
Page 113: suggests. Varioari for the Yakha wo
Page 117 and 118: Certainly Yakha identity, their sen
Page 119 and 120: Bahadur one day; "doesn't it smell
Page 121 and 122: inland, and came into contact with
Page 123 and 124: land amongst kinsmen and adjudicati
Page 125 and 126: part. We shall then go on to look a
Page 127 and 128: settlers was from a pattern of shif
Page 129 and 130: PanciWa t Ankhibhui Maml i ng Tamap
Page 131 and 132: At the local level, the figures for
Page 133 and 134: P6-c Khap~ar (1 it, 'Five Skulls' )
Page 135 and 136: etween the two tribes were to be ta
Page 137 and 138: greater extreme the Yakha of Kingri
Page 139 and 140: People did not seem unduly perturbe
Page 141 and 142: take food, and to whom one could gi
Page 143 and 144: However, despite the influence of c
Page 145 and 146: 1979:53). We were told of two other
Page 148 and 149: circumspection, A particularly stro
Page 150 and 151: striking in terms of the dichotomy
Page 152 and 153: ut never eaten. It should be noted
Page 154 and 155: Dasai-, TihBr, S8un San.krBnti, M B
Page 156: splattered with whitewash, and it o
Page 159 and 160: its scrupulous egalitarianism in ap
Page 161 and 162: In preparation, a large square of c
Page 163 and 164: practitioner) stepped forward and d
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Tihtir, their distinctive smell bei
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Plate 12: The predh6n v6-c gives Ti
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marked, clockwise from top left, wi
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e honoured, and proceeding through
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would tend to make feeble excuses a
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ice and dahi which had been the mar
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also served. The house was speciall
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there was no simple 'melting pot' a
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not at the material level conceived
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although it has been observed among
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amongst the more sophisticated memb
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Yakha came into Tamaphok in search
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muntum were essentially the same, w
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Sagant (1976:58) admits that "in th
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There were few specific things mark
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arkhi had to be of a different chor
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Plate 16: Chambog dh6ri5 in the mid
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millet would be enough to satisfy a
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pointing down. The next stage was c
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The story of O'B'mi was told to us
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of Tenbe'na was recited as follows:
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such as me,ca cydtj, which were sai
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and Yasokeni, all played to in a ba
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y the religious practitioners who t
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2. Cf, A1 len: "When I arrived in t
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5.2 The Yakha House The house in wh
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whitewash in painting their houses,
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me Porch The porch (omphu) mediated
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in this. People would put small wov
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to a terrace (Plate 20) which overl
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21). Ground level was part animal e
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clans, lineages and familial roles.
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clan. Yet one five-year old girl si
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Despite the origins of the relation
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are no women mentioned apart from K
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due, was to use their kinship term
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number of relationships covered by
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strife and tension. Quite often the
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situation was often only a temporar
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5.4 The Household Economy The expec
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labourers'). Some distinction betwe
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kind of previously cooked snack foo
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parma workers was a source of extra
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een the collaboration of groups of
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Loans, Debts and Indigency We ident
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'traditional' patterns were changin
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suggests, is a trait shared by all
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Kirsten Johnson and her col leagues
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karele variety grown lower down, an
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also said to keep plants such as du
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whereby people and goods came into,
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and September, before the rice plan
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few weeks ear!ier during Dasai-> to
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maize planting time in the beginnin
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y performing a pul to pokta cyao in
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when his parents died, was granted
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trees served as an important fodder
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valley). There was at that time no
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were said to be found where tigers
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causes of forest depletion. Many pe
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family we interviewed could remembe
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ecological basis of the societies i
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However, our over-r id ing impress
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3. The surprise which some anthropo
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Chapter Seven: Inside-Out: Other Wo
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N.R. Shrestha, 1982, 1985a, 1985b;
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usinesses were located near them, T
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Plate 26: Walking through the fores
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Adding to the sense of Basantapur a
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Plate 28: Sansare Mude bazaar Plate
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Khola valley and to the Himalaya, a
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Annual Fairs In addition to the reg
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verses, these were not generally kn
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8 Tapai- arth ffarnuhos (Promise yo
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problems, The fundamental importanc
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in the district. In our studies of
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clothing from abroad was much in ev
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friend of his. This annual military
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Pakistan war and remembered the con
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everyone, As potential wage labour
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service and bought land in the same
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money paid agents in Kathmandu who
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people concerned, and how the outsi
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and this, perhaps, made marriage ac
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jerked by the strings of broader so
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is ...p rimarily due to the growth
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Sanskritizat ion had been part of Y
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Plate 30: Listening to music Plate
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as a backwater, everyone agreed tha
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students coming from some distance
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For students in ward 9, Okhre-Bhote
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The teachers also administered a sc
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the school. The curriculum followed
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see the spatial relationship betwee
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King Mahendra in 1960 after he accu
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Plate 32: Pradhen P8-c issuing citi
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Outside, people started getting exc
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muscle with regard to its de jure c
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after festivals and somewhat lackad
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As well as the ANM, a students' ass
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Ths school was a central forum for
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of the po!itical struggle, despite
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the ambiguously regarded superpower
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of their shop with stout wooden pla
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section looks briefly at how these
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for individuals within the prevaili
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particular ward, Books and other me
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e overturned: the visiting BNMT wor
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wondered whether everyone was likel
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that, with his influence, a nascent
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Newang, President of the Front. (Hi
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I argued, are particu!arly pertinen
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Yakha, I have produced a text which
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Kathmandu where she enrolled in Eng
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a'wa a a achia ach~ tamum ach~ tapu
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ha emabu bhasnik bhusudna ca came c
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dukka mene jogan duna duna du-ru Da
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i , kma i , mma ka 'nir~o kacek kam
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leema lesnchi le.pma le,kma le*r]ma
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Plate 35: The Maya Khola valley
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pha 'me phak pharog phamne pha* bu
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uc un ucumphakr]a uha uhaoma ukma u
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Appendix I1 Interview Schedule (The
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Annual production: rice, maize, mil
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Adhikary, K. R, 1988,
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Brown, C. H. 1984. Languages and Li
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Doherty, V. S. 1975. Kinship and Ec
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Hitchcock, J , 1961, A Nepalese hil
Page 426 and 427:
--- 1986b. Human Imapct on Some For
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Orlove, B. S. 1980. Ecological Anth
Page 430 and 431:
Shrestha, K. 1984. Nepal i Names fo
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White, L.A, 1959. TheEvolutfon of C
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