THE YAKHA: CULTURE, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT IN ...

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assistance for small-scale development projects such as roads, trails, drinking water, schools and bridges. No other political system in Nepal has made such an effort at village level" (198!:77). As we shall see later in this chapter, the pace at which such infrastructure developed was subsequently regarded as unsatisfactory, while the arrival of schools in its own way contributed to the demise of the system which Smith claims was operating so effectively st village level. 2, Cf, the pradhfin pfi-c in Kattike, the village studied by Bouillier, whose attitudes and activities with regard to education were similar (!979: 24). 3. According to government figures shown to me by the headmaster, in 2044 V.S. in Sankhuwasabha district of 555 students taking the SLC exam (404 males and 151 females) 25.4% had passed, 28.5% of the msles and 17.2% of the females. Sankhuwasabha seemed close to the eastern region average (27*4% overall pass rate, 29.8% of the males and 19% of females), In Tehrathum, the pass rate was only 16.8% overall, in Ilam !9.7%, Dhankuta 30-4%, but in Bhojpur it was 42#3%, Even these disappointing figures have to be taken with some degree of circl~mspection, however, since they do not reflect the numbers of students who wanted to take the SLC exams but were prevented by poor performance in the qualifying tests. Each year, between Dasai- and TihBr, the district education off ice administered what was known as the SLC 'sent up' exams. These tests, which cast a pal 1 over the Dasaifestivities for the students involved, selected which of Class 10 students could take the SLC matriculation exams proper the following year, The tests were quite strictly administered, Every student had to attend school on the Thursday after Tikg Ia~Fiune - to obtain their pravesh pa tra (admittance card). The exams (starting with English) were invigilated by the teachers under the eye of a supervisor from the district headquarters in Khandbari. The 'sent up' exam was more difficult to get through than the SLC itself. In 2047 of the 6A who took the qualifying exam only 24 passed. The previous year, 62 had taken it and 25 had passed, of whom 13 had gone on to pass their SLC. 4. The answer to the second question, which makes sense in the Devanagari alphabet, was the g!rlls name ' Ri-mfi-ku-mfi-ri' , 5. As Burghart and Gaenszle remark, while the pro-democracy movement gathered momentum, " increasing numbers of citizens led a double 1 i fe: outward 1 y observing the laws and constraints of pancsvat democracy, inwardly opposing the constitution or treating the Panchas with cynicism" !199!:6). 6. He conveniently ignored the fact that Nandi the bul! is also a constant companion of Shiva. 7. Cf. "A leaflet circ~~lated in the name of the Limbi~wan Liberation Front demanded that there should he a separate state of Limbuwan (in the far-eastern hill region), with full autonomy, except on mstters concerning currency, foreign affairs and defense, It also demanded a federal system in Nepal (Samaj, May 18). The leaflet was signed by Sir
Newang, President of the Front. (Hindu, May 24)" (Nepal Press Digest 1990: 2201. 8. A brief account of the project is presented in Sill and Kirkby (1991: 114-118). 9. The DFO was subsequently relocated (along with the Chief District Officer) after a scandal involving them in the profitable redefinition of forest boundaries around the district headquarters in Khandbari. Hence his plan did not come to pass,
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THE YAKHA: CULTURE, ENVIRONMENT AND
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Dedicated to the memory of MART IN
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Without the funding of the ESRC it
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CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: Searching for
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CHAPTER SEVEN: Other Worlds: Inside
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List of Plates After Page P!ate 1:
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, Map I: Nepal, showing location of
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March 1989 and October 1990, in the
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to be social?", friends asked. "Enc
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people whom the project was designe
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was no reason why SEADD (who liked
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presence of institutions at the loc
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I did have the opportunity to under
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(Map 2). We decided to make Kathman
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felt I had scored a small victory o
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Chainpur (see Map 3). It was on the
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primary level teacher at the Tamaph
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quest ions concerned wi th language
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p 5: KHARDEP map of Tamaphok penchy
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to visit during the day. Our own da
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learn the Yakha language, our progr
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week into his palm to cover the ext
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make enquiries. I found out about a
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a research assistant after school.
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to collect a VSO (Voluntary Service
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towns). Demonstrations and strikes
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post-mortem exemfnations could be c
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Kathmandu and elsewhere, and there
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sending to Kathmandu, a lucky find
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Our return to Tamaphok after this w
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een his concern: ie there has been
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of the ncrude distinction between '
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with their environment' ) and ask w
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Notes: Chapter One 1. I should expl
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higher administrators in Europe, mi
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Chapter Two: Ecological Anthropolog
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despite long-term involvement in th
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This chapter looks at how many of t
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Poffenberger (1980) sees a direct a
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The major variable which Macfarlane
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the mindless instigators of denudat
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ather than regularities in the phen
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contradict ions" (Ellen, 1979b: 21,
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position which is too broad to be u
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Steward was predated by Meggers (19
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value of an ecosystemic approach in
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small population may be more adapti
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describes as ' mangeurs du bois' [e
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Rappaport thus argues for the need
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eing trivial and dealing only with
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What we have, then, is ecological a
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Others have suggested that there ma
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were unique is to deny an answer to
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1987:86>. Sometimes identity derive
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and funeral and other ritual obliga
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suggests. Varioari for the Yakha wo
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Plate 7: Yakha woman, Kami boy Plat
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Certainly Yakha identity, their sen
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Bahadur one day; "doesn't it smell
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inland, and came into contact with
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land amongst kinsmen and adjudicati
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part. We shall then go on to look a
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settlers was from a pattern of shif
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PanciWa t Ankhibhui Maml i ng Tamap
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At the local level, the figures for
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P6-c Khap~ar (1 it, 'Five Skulls' )
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etween the two tribes were to be ta
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greater extreme the Yakha of Kingri
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People did not seem unduly perturbe
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take food, and to whom one could gi
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However, despite the influence of c
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1979:53). We were told of two other
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circumspection, A particularly stro
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striking in terms of the dichotomy
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ut never eaten. It should be noted
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Dasai-, TihBr, S8un San.krBnti, M B
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splattered with whitewash, and it o
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its scrupulous egalitarianism in ap
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In preparation, a large square of c
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practitioner) stepped forward and d
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Tihtir, their distinctive smell bei
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Plate 12: The predh6n v6-c gives Ti
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marked, clockwise from top left, wi
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e honoured, and proceeding through
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would tend to make feeble excuses a
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ice and dahi which had been the mar
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also served. The house was speciall
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there was no simple 'melting pot' a
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not at the material level conceived
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although it has been observed among
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amongst the more sophisticated memb
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Yakha came into Tamaphok in search
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muntum were essentially the same, w
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Sagant (1976:58) admits that "in th
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There were few specific things mark
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arkhi had to be of a different chor
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Plate 16: Chambog dh6ri5 in the mid
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millet would be enough to satisfy a
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pointing down. The next stage was c
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The story of O'B'mi was told to us
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of Tenbe'na was recited as follows:
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such as me,ca cydtj, which were sai
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and Yasokeni, all played to in a ba
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y the religious practitioners who t
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2. Cf, A1 len: "When I arrived in t
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5.2 The Yakha House The house in wh
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whitewash in painting their houses,
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me Porch The porch (omphu) mediated
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in this. People would put small wov
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to a terrace (Plate 20) which overl
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21). Ground level was part animal e
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clans, lineages and familial roles.
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clan. Yet one five-year old girl si
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Despite the origins of the relation
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are no women mentioned apart from K
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due, was to use their kinship term
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number of relationships covered by
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strife and tension. Quite often the
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situation was often only a temporar
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5.4 The Household Economy The expec
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labourers'). Some distinction betwe
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kind of previously cooked snack foo
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parma workers was a source of extra
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een the collaboration of groups of
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Loans, Debts and Indigency We ident
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'traditional' patterns were changin
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suggests, is a trait shared by all
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Kirsten Johnson and her col leagues
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karele variety grown lower down, an
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also said to keep plants such as du
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whereby people and goods came into,
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and September, before the rice plan
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few weeks ear!ier during Dasai-> to
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maize planting time in the beginnin
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y performing a pul to pokta cyao in
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when his parents died, was granted
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trees served as an important fodder
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valley). There was at that time no
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were said to be found where tigers
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causes of forest depletion. Many pe
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family we interviewed could remembe
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ecological basis of the societies i
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However, our over-r id ing impress
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3. The surprise which some anthropo
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Chapter Seven: Inside-Out: Other Wo
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N.R. Shrestha, 1982, 1985a, 1985b;
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usinesses were located near them, T
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Plate 26: Walking through the fores
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Adding to the sense of Basantapur a
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Plate 28: Sansare Mude bazaar Plate
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Khola valley and to the Himalaya, a
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Annual Fairs In addition to the reg
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verses, these were not generally kn
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8 Tapai- arth ffarnuhos (Promise yo
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problems, The fundamental importanc
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in the district. In our studies of
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clothing from abroad was much in ev
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friend of his. This annual military
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Pakistan war and remembered the con
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everyone, As potential wage labour
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service and bought land in the same
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money paid agents in Kathmandu who
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people concerned, and how the outsi
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and this, perhaps, made marriage ac
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Page 337 and 338: is ...p rimarily due to the growth
Page 339 and 340: Sanskritizat ion had been part of Y
Page 341 and 342: Plate 30: Listening to music Plate
Page 343 and 344: as a backwater, everyone agreed tha
Page 345 and 346: students coming from some distance
Page 347 and 348: For students in ward 9, Okhre-Bhote
Page 349 and 350: The teachers also administered a sc
Page 351 and 352: the school. The curriculum followed
Page 353 and 354: see the spatial relationship betwee
Page 355 and 356: King Mahendra in 1960 after he accu
Page 357 and 358: Plate 32: Pradhen P8-c issuing citi
Page 359 and 360: Outside, people started getting exc
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Page 363 and 364: after festivals and somewhat lackad
Page 365 and 366: As well as the ANM, a students' ass
Page 367 and 368: Ths school was a central forum for
Page 369 and 370: of the po!itical struggle, despite
Page 371 and 372: the ambiguously regarded superpower
Page 373 and 374: of their shop with stout wooden pla
Page 375 and 376: section looks briefly at how these
Page 377 and 378: for individuals within the prevaili
Page 379 and 380: particular ward, Books and other me
Page 381 and 382: e overturned: the visiting BNMT wor
Page 383 and 384: wondered whether everyone was likel
Page 385: that, with his influence, a nascent
Page 389 and 390: I argued, are particu!arly pertinen
Page 391 and 392: Yakha, I have produced a text which
Page 393 and 394: Kathmandu where she enrolled in Eng
Page 395 and 396: a'wa a a achia ach~ tamum ach~ tapu
Page 397 and 398: ha emabu bhasnik bhusudna ca came c
Page 399 and 400: dukka mene jogan duna duna du-ru Da
Page 401 and 402: i , kma i , mma ka 'nir~o kacek kam
Page 403 and 404: leema lesnchi le.pma le,kma le*r]ma
Page 405 and 406: Plate 35: The Maya Khola valley
Page 407 and 408: pha 'me phak pharog phamne pha* bu
Page 409 and 410: uc un ucumphakr]a uha uhaoma ukma u
Page 411 and 412: Appendix I1 Interview Schedule (The
Page 413 and 414: Annual production: rice, maize, mil
Page 417 and 418: BIBLIOGRAPHY Adhikary, K. R, 1988,
Page 419 and 420: Brown, C. H. 1984. Languages and Li
Page 421 and 422: Doherty, V. S. 1975. Kinship and Ec
Page 424 and 425: Hitchcock, J , 1961, A Nepalese hil
Page 426 and 427: --- 1986b. Human Imapct on Some For
Page 428 and 429: Orlove, B. S. 1980. Ecological Anth
Page 430 and 431: Shrestha, K. 1984. Nepal i Names fo
Page 432: White, L.A, 1959. TheEvolutfon of C
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