THE YAKHA: CULTURE, ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT IN ...

trees served as an important fodder source, as did the weeds and
shrubbery (such as the fern srioani .fhaD (unidentified) found at
altitudes slightly higher than the main areas of habitation in Tamaphok)
along paths and wherever else they could be cut. While, except for the
highest reaches of forest furthest from human habitation, there were few
trees which had not been lopped for fodder purposes, most fodder used by
the Yakha did not come from the main forests, since fodder (unlike
firewood) needed to be collected on a daily basis.
Unlike Carter !1991), we did not find much evidence of private
planting of trees, although some must have taken place. Dudhelo (Ficus
nemoral is) was one tree which was particularly favoured for fodder.
Nepal pepper (Timur, hoksog) trees growing at lower a! t i tudes were also
seen as good sources of fodder. The same trees growing higher up were
good for medicinal purposes, the mentho!ated aroma of their berries
(harvested from June onwards and sometimes pressed to make an oil) being
good for colds and coughs. The berries were also used to make a pickle
that was often eaten with potatoes. Walnut trees (okhar, khfbu) were
also found near human settlement - around our local dh8r-6, for example.
The nuts, harvested in the autumn, were used to make cooking oil as well
as to be eaten raw. The fruits of trees such as Nepal pepper and walnut
seemed to be regarded as something akin to common property, even though
they were located on people's private land,
Bamboo also played an integral part in people's daily lives,',. and
stands of bamboo were to be found planted around fields and in the
gullies and stream beds separating them. There were four main types of
bamboo distinguished, in addition to the thinner malin~o (Arundinaria
artisteta) with its purple bark which was used by children to make