cleansers. They are used in Ayurvedic medicine as a treatment for eczema, psoriasis and for removing freckles. Saponins are believed to be useful in the human diet for controlling cholesterol. Digitalis-type saponins strengthen the heart muscle causing the heart to pump more efficiently. They also inhibit cancer tumor growth in animals, particularly, lung and blood cancers, without killing normal cells. Saponins are the plant immune system acting as an antibiotic to protect the plant against microbes and fungus (Chatterrjee & Chakravorty, 1993). 5.2.4 Anthraquinones An anthraquinone is an aromatic organic compound. It is a derivative <strong>of</strong> anthracene. It has the appearance <strong>of</strong> a yellow or light-gray to gray-green, solid, crystalline powder. It is semi-soluble in water but dissolves in alcohol, nitrobenzene and aniline. It is chemically fairly stable under normal conditions. Anthraquinones naturally occur in some plants, fungi, lichen and insects, wherein they serve as a basic skeleton for their pigments. Anthraquinones are used in the production <strong>of</strong> dyes. They are also used as a laxative (Chatterrjee & Chakravorty, 1993) 5.2.5 Cardiac glycosides Cardiac glycosides are drugs used in the treatment <strong>of</strong> congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmia. These glycosides are found as secondary metabolites in several plants and in some animals. Some <strong>of</strong> these compounds are used as arrowhead poisons in hunting (Filippos et al., 2007). 5.3 RESULTS The results for the phytochemical screening <strong>of</strong> plants used in this study are summarized in Table 5.1. This table also indicates the presence <strong>of</strong> alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, anthraquinones, cardiac glycosides or tannins in some species as described previously in other studies. Most <strong>of</strong> the plants surveyed produce different secondary metabolites, which were evidenced by the differences in their phytochemical results (Table 5.1). 87
Table 5.1 Phytochemical screening results. Results from the literature are indicated in blue. Plant species Alkaloids Flavonoids Saponins Anthra- Acanthospermum australe + Acorus calamus + Albizia adianthifolia Baccharoides adoensis Clerodendium hirsutum Combretum erythrophyllum Faurea saligna - Gerbera ambigua - Gunnera perpensa Hypericum aethiopicum + (Oluwole et al., 2007) + (Gilani et al., 2006) + + (Burkill, 1985) + - (Oluwole et al., 2007) - NPR - NPR + (Martini et al., 2004) NPR + + (McGaw et al., 2008) - NPR - + (Oluwole et al., 2007) + + (Gilani et al., 2006) - NPR + - (Oluwole et al., 2007) + NPR - + (Martini et al., 2004) - NPR - NPR - NPR - NPR - + (Oluwole et al., 2007) - + (Gilani et al., 2006) - + (Burkill, 1985) - + (Oluwole et al., 2007) - NPR - NPR - NPR - NPR - NPR - NPR 88 quinones - NPR - NPR - NPR - - (Oluwole et al.,2007) - NPR + NPR - NPR - NPR - NPR - NPR Cardiac glycosides - + (Oluwole et al., 2007) - NPR - + (Burkill, 1985) - + (Oluwole et al., 2007) - NPR + NPR - NPR - NPR + NPR - NPR Tanins - + (Oluwole et al., 2007) - + (Gilani et al., 2006) - + (Burkill, 1985) - + (Oluwole et al., 2007) + NPR + NPR + NPR + NPR + NPR + NPR
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Antimicrobial activity testing of t
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3.1 Introduction 21 3.2 Plants used
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Appendix I: Research questionnaire
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2.5 Sensitivity table of MDR Gram p
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2n diploid Abbreviations ATCC Ameri
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Dedication My sincere thanks and gr
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Plants have
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legislation in South Africa, which
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1.1 OBJECTIVES The objectives of th
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Table 2.1 Plants that were collecte
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Scientific names Zulu names Parts u
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Surname Gender Place Age-range M. D
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Antibiotics Escherichia coli U16403
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Dragendorff’s reagent Ethanol (Fe
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The plates were observed for the pr
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2.6.4 Anthraquinones Dried plant ma
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3.1 INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 3 ETHNOBOT
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3.2.1 Scientific name : Acanthosper
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Medicinal uses The Acorus calamus i
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Figure 3.5 The fruits of Albizia ad
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Botanical description Baccharoides
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Data from ethnobotanical survey The
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3.2.7 Scientific name : Hypoxis hem
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3.2.8 Scientific name : Faurea sali
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MIC results in mg/ml ATTC CULTURES
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MIC results in mg/ml ATTC CULTURES
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Table 4.12 Minimum inhibitory conce
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MIC results in mg/ml ATTC CULTURES
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MIC results in mg/ml ATTC CULTURES