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haemolysins, leukocidin, and perhaps of less significance, beta and gamma hemolysins. Certain strains of Staphylococcus aureus are capable of producing other damaging toxins such as enterotoxins and exfoliatin, and the toxin responsible for the toxic shock syndrome. The enzyme coagulase is regarded as a virulence factor in that it may inhibit the bactericidal activity of normal serum and phagocytosis. Staphylococcus aureus lipase may influence the non-specific, primary defense system by increasing the chemotactic response of polymorph nuclear leukocytes. The ability of Staphylococcus aureus to bind fibronectin and collagen exposed in open wounds in microtrauma allow this organism to readily establish itself in traumatized tissues. Binding to laminin allows this species to localize in basal membranes in various body sites. Staphylococcal pathogenicity also depends upon the effectiveness of the host defense system, which include natural barriers of the skin and mucous membranes, and humoral and phagocytic immune responses. During the past decade, it has become increasingly apparent that patients with deficient numbers of phagocytic cells, or disorders in their function, have increased susceptibility to staphylococcal infections. Members of the genus Staphylococcus are Gram-positive cocci that occur singly, in pairs, tetrads, short chains and irregular grapelike clusters. These members are non-motile, non-spore-forming, and usually unencapsulated, or have limited capsular formation. Staphylococcus aureus grows rapidly and abundantly under aerobic conditions. Staphylococcal cell walls contain teichoic acid and peptidoglycan. They can be grouped according to their natural or genomic relationships as dertemined by DNA-DNA hybridization and the thermal stability of DNA heteroduplexes (Willey et al. 2008). 63
Table 4.1 Physical description of the bacterial strains used. BACTERIA STRAIN NUMBER GRAM-POSITIVE/ GRAM-NEGATIVE Bacillus subtilis ATCC6051 Gram-positive bacilli, Escherichia coli ATCC11775, Klebsiella pneumonia Staphylococcus aureus u1505s, u16406, u16403. spore- forming and aerobic bacterium. Gram-negative bacilli, non-spore- forming. ATCC13883 Gram-negative bacilli, ATCC12600, P5020, 4790, T1266. 4.4 AGAR WELL AND DISC DIFFUSION 4.4.1 Agar well diffusion results non-spore- forming. Gram-positive, spherical cell clusters, non- spore- forming. 64 GROWTH DESCRIPTION Colonial variation is observed. One type of colony is flat, irregular- shaped and whitish in color. The other is smaller, more circular, flat/rough and translucent. Colonies are glistening, smooth, translucent and 1, 5-3 mm in diameter. Two colony types can be seen. The predominant type is glistening, smooth, opaque and 2 mm in diameter. The second type is light, smaller and more translucent. Colonies vary in size. Colonies are glistening, circular and smooth. The results obtained from the agar well and the disc diffusion methods show high level of compatibility as seen in Tables 4.14 to 4.17.The agar well diffusion results for the plant species tested against the different microorganisms are presented in Tables 4.2 - 4.5 (appendix II).
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Antimicrobial activity testing of t
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3.1 Introduction 21 3.2 Plants used
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Appendix I: Research questionnaire
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2.5 Sensitivity table of MDR Gram p
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2n diploid Abbreviations ATCC Ameri
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Dedication My sincere thanks and gr
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Plants have
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legislation in South Africa, which
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1.1 OBJECTIVES The objectives of th
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Table 2.1 Plants that were collecte
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Scientific names Zulu names Parts u
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Surname Gender Place Age-range M. D
Page 26 and 27: Antibiotics Escherichia coli U16403
Page 28 and 29: Dragendorff’s reagent Ethanol (Fe
Page 30 and 31: The plates were observed for the pr
Page 32 and 33: 2.6.4 Anthraquinones Dried plant ma
Page 34 and 35: 3.1 INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 3 ETHNOBOT
Page 36 and 37: 3.2.1 Scientific name : Acanthosper
Page 38 and 39: Medicinal uses The Acorus calamus i
Page 40 and 41: Figure 3.5 The fruits of Albizia ad
Page 42 and 43: Botanical description Baccharoides
Page 44 and 45: Data from ethnobotanical survey The
Page 46 and 47: 3.2.7 Scientific name : Hypoxis hem
Page 48 and 49: 3.2.8 Scientific name : Faurea sali
Page 50 and 51: emerge from the crown and bear a si
Page 52 and 53: Conservation status The species is
Page 54 and 55: 3.2.12 Scientific name : Lippia jav
Page 56 and 57: 3.2.13 Scientific name : Pentanisia
Page 58 and 59: Botanical description The marula is
Page 60 and 61: The lobed discolorous leaves, the m
Page 62 and 63: Figure 3.21 The leaves of Trichilia
Page 64 and 65: 3.2.17 Scientific name : Warburgia
Page 66 and 67: 3.2.18 Scientific name : Ziziphus m
Page 68 and 69: According to the interviews that we
Page 70 and 71: CHAPTER 4 ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY 4.
Page 72 and 73: factor in selecting resistant micro
Page 74 and 75: present in a cow’s udder or equip
Page 78 and 79: 4.4.2 Disc diffusion results The di
Page 80 and 81: Table 4.15 Comparison of results ob
Page 82 and 83: PLANT NAMES Agar well result SA Dis
Page 86 and 87: PLANT NAMES Agar well result SA4790
Page 90 and 91: PLANT NAMES Agar well result ECU164
Page 92 and 93: The use of American Type Culture Co
Page 94 and 95: mentioned strain which were Acantho
Page 96 and 97: In this study it was found that Aco
Page 98 and 99: 5.1 INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 5 PHYTOCHE
Page 100 and 101: cleansers. They are used in Ayurved
Page 102 and 103: Plant species Alkaloids Flavonoids
Page 104 and 105: Trichilia dregeana in this study wh
Page 106 and 107: Rf =Distance moved by the compound/
Page 108 and 109: Figure 6.5 The TLC plate (left) and
Page 110 and 111: 6.3 DISCUSSION The bio-autoautograp
Page 112 and 113: the results obtained from the agar
Page 114 and 115: e at least effective as forest guar
Page 116 and 117: Brain, K.R., Turner T.D., 1975. The
Page 118 and 119: Howard, P.L., 2003. Women and Plant
Page 120 and 121: McGaw, L.J., Jager, A.K., van Stade
Page 122 and 123: Portillo, A., Vila, R., Freixa, B.,
Page 124 and 125: Van Vuuren, S., 2007. The antimicro
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APPENDIX I: Research Questionnaire
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APPENDIX II: Antimicrobial activity
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a + 2 Average Calculation of result
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Sensitivity of different bacteria a
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Table 4.7 Results of sensitivity of
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MIC results in mg/ml ATTC CULTURES
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Table 4.12 Minimum inhibitory conce
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