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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Plants have generally been used by human beings in the treatment of common, infectious diseases. Some of these traditional medicines are still used in regular treatments for various diseases (Rios & Reico, 2005). For example, the use of bearberry and cranberry juice to treat urinary infections is reported in the literature on phytotherapy, while plant species such as lemon balm, garlic and the tea tree are described as broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents (Rios & Reico, 2005). Infectious diseases are aggravated by factors such as inadequate sanitation, poor hygiene and overcrowded living conditions (Kerr & Lacey, 1995). The control of infectious diseases has come as a result of a comprehensive understanding of disease processes, improved sanitary practices, and the discovery and use of antimicrobial agents. Human dependence on plants as a source of medicine is common in developing countries where traditional medicine plays a major role in healthcare (Farnsworth, 1994; Srivastava et al., 1996). Medicinal plants have been a source of medicine in virtually all cultures (Banquar, 1995). During the last decade, the use of traditional medicine has expanded globally and is gaining popularity. Traditional medicine has continued to be used not only in the primary healthcare of poor people in developing countries, but also in countries where conventional medicine is predominant in the national healthcare system (Lafranco, 1999). According to the World Health Organisation (WHO, 2001), herbal medicines serve the health needs of about 80% of the world’s population, especially the millions of people in the vast rural areas of developing countries. The Traditional Medicine Program of the WHO defines traditional medicine as the sum total of all the knowledge and practices used in the diagnosis, prevention and elimination of physical, mental or social imbalances (Rukangira, 2001). According to Van Wyk et al. (1997) many people on earth still rely on medicinal plants and other material for everyday healthcare needs. Rural populations are more involved in traditional ways of treatment because of their beliefs, and the easy availability and low cost of traditional medicines (Banquar, 1993). It is more likely that 1
the profound knowledge of herbal remedies in traditional cultures, developed over many years, were carefully passed on verbally from generation to generation. The passage of the knowledge of traditional medicines from one generation to another relies mostly on practical experience and observation. The variation between communities gives traditional medicine its diverse plurality. In the history of traditional systems, every region had its own traditional medicines. In different parts of the world, different tribes have their own traditional medicines which vary from one another. For instance, Chinese, Arabic and African medicines are all rooted in their cultural contexts (Van Wyk et al., 1997). The attention given by governments to the healthcare application of traditional medicines has given a new direction to research, investment and the design of programmes in this field in several developing countries (Rukangira, 2001). Of all medicine systems, African traditional medicine is the oldest and the most diverse (Van Wyk et al., 1997). Remedies made from plants and traditional healers play an important role in the health of millions of African people. The increase in Africa’s population increases the demand for traditional medicines since most Africans rely on them. Reflected in the marked regional differences, is the biological and cultural diversity of Africa, which constitutes the cradle of mankind in healing practices (Van Wyk et al., 1997). Medicinal drugs derived from plants are of strategic and economic value for the African continent. Southern Africa contains about 10% of the world’s diverse plants, but relatively little chemical work has been done on medicinal plants from this region (Eloff, 1997). Although people now live in a world where many pathogenic microorganisms are able to be controlled, the emergence of multiple drug resistant strains is becoming a reason for serious concern (Madigan et al., 2003). In South Africa, many people still use plants as alternative medicines, or as a supplement to visiting a western healthcare practitioner (Van Wyk et al., 1997). Besides, South Africa is home to over 30,000 species of higher plants, 3000 of which species have been found to be used in traditional medicine across the country (Van Wyk et al., 1997). There are over 27 million users of indigenous medicine (Mander, 1998) and an estimated 200,000 indigenous traditional healers, whom up to 60% of the population in South Africa consult (Van Wyk et al., 1997). The current nature conservation 2
Page 1 and 2: Antimicrobial activity testing of t
Page 3 and 4: 3.1 Introduction 21 3.2 Plants used
Page 5 and 6: Appendix I: Research questionnaire
Page 7 and 8: 2.5 Sensitivity table of MDR Gram p
Page 9 and 10: 2n diploid Abbreviations ATCC Ameri
Page 11 and 12: Dedication My sincere thanks and gr
Page 16 and 17: legislation in South Africa, which
Page 18 and 19: 1.1 OBJECTIVES The objectives of th
Page 20 and 21: Table 2.1 Plants that were collecte
Page 22 and 23: Scientific names Zulu names Parts u
Page 24 and 25: Surname Gender Place Age-range M. D
Page 26 and 27: Antibiotics Escherichia coli U16403
Page 28 and 29: Dragendorff’s reagent Ethanol (Fe
Page 30 and 31: The plates were observed for the pr
Page 32 and 33: 2.6.4 Anthraquinones Dried plant ma
Page 34 and 35: 3.1 INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 3 ETHNOBOT
Page 36 and 37: 3.2.1 Scientific name : Acanthosper
Page 38 and 39: Medicinal uses The Acorus calamus i
Page 40 and 41: Figure 3.5 The fruits of Albizia ad
Page 42 and 43: Botanical description Baccharoides
Page 44 and 45: Data from ethnobotanical survey The
Page 46 and 47: 3.2.7 Scientific name : Hypoxis hem
Page 48 and 49: 3.2.8 Scientific name : Faurea sali
Page 50 and 51: emerge from the crown and bear a si
Page 52 and 53: Conservation status The species is
Page 54 and 55: 3.2.12 Scientific name : Lippia jav
Page 56 and 57: 3.2.13 Scientific name : Pentanisia
Page 58 and 59: Botanical description The marula is
Page 60 and 61: The lobed discolorous leaves, the m
Page 62 and 63: Figure 3.21 The leaves of Trichilia
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3.2.17 Scientific name : Warburgia
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3.2.18 Scientific name : Ziziphus m
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According to the interviews that we
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CHAPTER 4 ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY 4.
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factor in selecting resistant micro
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present in a cow’s udder or equip
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haemolysins, leukocidin, and perhap
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4.4.2 Disc diffusion results The di
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Table 4.15 Comparison of results ob
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PLANT NAMES Agar well result SA Dis
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PLANT NAMES Agar well result SA4790
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PLANT NAMES Agar well result ECU164
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The use of American Type Culture Co
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mentioned strain which were Acantho
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In this study it was found that Aco
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5.1 INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 5 PHYTOCHE
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cleansers. They are used in Ayurved
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Plant species Alkaloids Flavonoids
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Trichilia dregeana in this study wh
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Rf =Distance moved by the compound/
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Figure 6.5 The TLC plate (left) and
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6.3 DISCUSSION The bio-autoautograp
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the results obtained from the agar
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e at least effective as forest guar
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Brain, K.R., Turner T.D., 1975. The
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Howard, P.L., 2003. Women and Plant
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McGaw, L.J., Jager, A.K., van Stade
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Portillo, A., Vila, R., Freixa, B.,
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Van Vuuren, S., 2007. The antimicro
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APPENDIX I: Research Questionnaire
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___________________________________
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APPENDIX II: Antimicrobial activity
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a + 2 Average Calculation of result
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Sensitivity of different bacteria a
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Table 4.7 Results of sensitivity of
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MIC results in mg/ml ATTC CULTURES
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Table 4.12 Minimum inhibitory conce
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