fm 44-100 us army air and missile defense operations

FM 44-100
effectively operate or acquire and engage targets. These systems include
radios, radar, jamming systems, direct-fire weapons, and airborne and
ground sensors as well as friendly ADA systems. Fields of fire relate to the
terrain effects on weapon systems. Airspace must be analyzed with regard to
routes that provide the best protection for air threats entering the target
area, and those that provide the best fields of fire once they reach the target
area.
Cover and Concealment
A-11. Cover and concealment have slightly different applications with respect
to air systems. The following tactics and techniques fall into the context of
cover and concealment:
• Contour flight. Flight at low altitude conforming generally to, and
in proximity to, the contours of the earth. It is characterized by
varying airspeeds and altitudes as dictated by vegetation, obstacles,
and ambient light. Generally speaking contour is defined as operating
with the skids or wheels between 25 and 80 feet above the highest
obstacle.
• Pop-up tactics. Low-level approach to the target area used by high
speed fixed wing aircraft such as the F-16. Target acquisition and
engagement is made by popping up in altitude at a predetermined
position or time to minimize exposure.
• Masking. Using terrain to protect an air system from visual and
electronic observation or detection. Electronic warfare supplements
natural masking.
• Cover. Using terrain to provide protection from direct-fire weapon
systems.
• Ground clutter. Characterized as a reduction of electromagnetic
signal-to-noise ratio due to the signature of a background. It is
different for each type of terrain or feature.
A-12. Fixed and rotary wing aircraft, cruise missiles, and possibly even UAVs
will use contour flying, masking, and ground clutter to avoid detection and to
provide cover from direct fires. Aircraft will also use the terrain by loitering
on reverse slopes, using pop-up tactics, and by using ground clutter and
vegetation as a backdrop to enhance concealment.
Obstacles
A-13. Obstacles are broken down into three primary types:
• Those which prevent the effective employment of ADA systems.
• Those that restrict contour flight.
• Those that force air threats to employ a particular surveillance or
attack profile or route, or to gain excessive altitude.
A-14. Of particular interest are obstacles and terrain, which restrict lateral
movement within an avenue of approach. This will canalize movement or
restrict evasive action. Additionally, terrain may stop the employment of
certain air threat systems if the terrain exceeds the system's maximum
operating ceiling. Obstacles should be plotted on a modified combined
obstacles overlay (MCOO).
A-3