Radiography in Modern Industry - Kodak

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damaged by the impact of stacking or by the weight of boxes above. In addition, storing the boxeson edge makes it simpler to rotate the inventory--that is, to use the older films first.Storage Of Exposed And Processed FilmArchival KeepingMany factors affect the storage life of radiographs. One of the most important factors is residualthiosulfate (from the fixer chemicals) left in the radiograph after processing and drying. Forarchival storage1, ANSI PH1.41 specifies the amount of residual thiosulfate (as determined bythe methylene blue test) to be a maximum level of 2 micrograms/cm 2 on each side of coarsegrainx-ray films. For short-term storage requirements, the residual thiosulfate content can be at ahigher level, but this level is not specified. Washing of the film after development and fixing,therefore, is most important. The methylene blue test and silver densitometric test are laboratoryprocedures to be performed on clear areas of the processed film.The following ANSI documents 2 may be used as an aid in determining storage conditions:1. ANSI PH1.41, Specifications for Photographic Film for Archival Records, Silver GelatinType on Polyester Base2. ANSI PH1.43, Practice for Storage of Processed Safety Photographic Film3. ANSI PH4.20, Requirements for Photographic Filing Enclosures for Storing ProcessedPhotographic Films, Plates, and Papers4. ANSI PH4.8, Methylene Blue Method for Measuring Thiosulfate and Silver DensitometricMethod for Measuring Residual Chemicals in Film, Plates, and Papers5. ANSI N45.2.9, Quality Assurance Records for Nuclear Power Plants, Requirements forCollection, Storage and Maintenance ofCommercial KeepingSince definite retention times for radiographs are often specified by applicable codes, archivalkeeping may not always be necessary. Recent studies3 have indicated that industrial x-ray films,with a residual thiosulfate ion level of up to 5 micrograms/cm 2 , per side (as measured by themethylene blue method described in ANSI PH4.8) 4 , should retain their information for at least 50years when stored at 0 to 24°C (32 to 75°F) and a relative humidity of 30 to 50 percent. Peaktemperatures for short time periods should not exceed 32°C (90°F) and the relative humidityshould not exceed 60 percent. Storage conditions in excess of these ranges tend to reduceimage stability. The extent of reduced image stability is very difficult to define, due to the greatnumber of conditions that could exist outside of the above suggested storage condition ranges. Itshould be noted that this does not imply that industrial x-ray films with a total residual thiosulfatecontent of 5 micrograms/cm 2 , per side, will have archival keeping characteristics. It does,however, suggest that these films will fulfill the needs of most current users of industrial x-ray filmrequiring a storage life of 50 years or less.Additional Storage SuggestionsRegardless of the length of time a radiograph is to be kept, these suggestions should be followedto provide for maximum stability of the radiographic image:1. Avoid storage in the presence of chemical fumes.2. Avoid short-term cycling of temperature and humidity.3. Place each radiograph in its own folder to prevent possible chemical contamination bythe glue used in making the storage envelope (negative preserver). Several radiographsmay be stored in a single storage envelope if each is in its own interleaving folder.4. Never store unprotected radiographs in bright light or sunlight.Radiography in Modern Industry 102
5. Avoid pressure damage caused by stacking a large number of radiographs in a singlepile, or by forcing more radiographs than can comfortably fit into a single file drawer orshelf.Other recommendations can be found in ANSI PH1.43.1 A term commonly used to describe the keeping quality of x-ray film, defined by the AmericanNational Standards Institute as "Archival Storage--Those storage conditions suitable for thepreservation of photographic film having permanent value." This term is not defined in years inANSI documents, but only in residual thiosulfate content (residual fixer) for archival storage.2 These documents may be obtained from the American National Standards Institute, Inc., 1430Broadway, New York, NY 10018.3 These studies, called Arrhenius tests, are relatively short-term, elevated-temperature testsconducted under carefully controlled conditions of temperature and humidity that simulate theeffects of natural aging.4 The methylene blue and silver densitometric methods produce data as a combination of bothsides of double-coated x-ray film.Radiography in Modern Industry 103
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RadiographyinModernIndustry
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RadiographyinModernIndustryFOURTH E
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ContentsIntroduction...............
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Chapter 1: The Radiographic Process
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Intensifying ScreensX-ray and other
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makes it a very suitable material f
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Figure 6: Typical voltage waveforms
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Table I - Typical X-ray Machines an
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The wavelengths (or energies of rad
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Table III - Industrial Gamma-Ray So
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1. The source of light should be sm
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B and H in the Figure 13 show the e
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Figure 14: Geometric construction f
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Figure 17: Pinhole pictures of the
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The kilovoltage applied to the x-ra
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Figure 21: Schematic diagram of som
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kind of material radiographed, the
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instance, the kilovoltage may be fi
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The technique need not be limited t
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Chapter 5: Radiographic ScreensWhen
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Contact between the film and the le
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Figure 29: The number of electrons
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lead foil screens ran be retained w
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Figure 33: The sharpness of the rad
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Figure 34: Low density (right) is a
Page 51 and 52: such as a wall or floor, on the fil
Page 53 and 54: from this source. Since scatter als
Page 55 and 56: A filter reduces excessive subject
Page 57 and 58: Definite rules as to filter thickne
Page 59 and 60: 0.010-inch front screen of value be
Page 61 and 62: Example: Suppose that with a given
Page 63 and 64: If the milliamperage remains consta
Page 65 and 66: espectively. In other words, a cons
Page 67 and 68: Any given exposure chart applies to
Page 69 and 70: Figure 46: Typical gamma-ray exposu
Page 71 and 72: where the slope of the characterist
Page 73 and 74: Figure 49: Characteristic curves of
Page 75 and 76: Figure 51: Characteristic curve of
Page 77 and 78: Nomogram MethodsIn Figure 54, the s
Page 79 and 80: Figure 56: Transparent overlay posi
Page 81 and 82: Figure 58: Overlay positioned so as
Page 83 and 84: The problem of radiographing a part
Page 85 and 86: Figure 62: System of lines drawn on
Page 87 and 88: Chapter 8: Radiographic Image Quali
Page 89 and 90: Film contrast refers to the slope (
Page 91 and 92: Hole Type PenetrametersThe common p
Page 93 and 94: of the same thickness as the specim
Page 95 and 96: Chapter 9: Industrial X-ray FilmsMo
Page 97 and 98: Figure 70 indicates the direction t
Page 99 and 100: the lead letters on a radiation-abs
Page 101: Therefore, protection requirements
Page 105 and 106: Paddles or plunger-type agitators a
Page 107 and 108: slow, and the development time reco
Page 109 and 110: ubbles make their way to the surfac
Page 111 and 112: When development is complete, the f
Page 113 and 114: soften considerably with prolonged
Page 115 and 116: Figure 77: The roller transport sys
Page 117 and 118: Rapid Access to Processed Radiograp
Page 119 and 120: Figure 78: Film-feeding procedures
Page 121 and 122: Chapter 11: Process ControlUsers of
Page 123 and 124: 3. Age of the developer replenisher
Page 125 and 126: Figure 80: Control chart below for
Page 127 and 128: DiscussionDensitometric data and pr
Page 129 and 130: Figure 82: Plan of a manual x-ray p
Page 131 and 132: Figure 83: A schematic diagram of a
Page 133 and 134: loading-bench activities are carrie
Page 135 and 136: KODAK Quinone-Thiosulfate Intensifi
Page 137 and 138: Methylene-Blue MethodTwo variations
Page 139 and 140: KODAK Hypo Test Solution HT-2Avoird
Page 141 and 142: In summary, use of the test papers
Page 143 and 144: narrow angle would be very thick, e
Page 145 and 146: When radiation passes through a spe
Page 147 and 148: Figure 89: Demonstration of the eff
Page 149 and 150: Figure 90: The amount of gamma radi
Page 151 and 152: The radiograph exposed in the right
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To illustrate, let us assume that t
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Figure 95: High-speed x-ray picture
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Figure 97: Two methods of neutron r
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Duplicating RadiographsSimultaneous
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Sometimes, as when sets of referenc
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PhotofluorographyIn photofluorograp
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discontinuities or of segregation i
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from the camera or by reaching down
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Figure 106: Schematic diagram of th
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valuable technique, for instance, i
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The position of the spots is determ
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Powder Diffraction File, Internatio
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Processing TechniquesRadiographs on
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Since this formula applies only to
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such that it does not distort the i
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Figure 113: A: Representation of a
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Figure 115: Characteristic curve of
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film fairly well. If high densities
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Density = 1.5 Density = 2.5Film Rel
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In most industrial radiography, the
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e noted here. Although the average
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Chapter 17: Film Graininess; Signal
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The ratio of signal to noise has a
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Chapter 18: The Photographic Latent
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Thus, the change that makes an expo
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Figure 130: Stages in the developme
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electrons by successive Compton int
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Development is essentially a chemic
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Chapter 19: ProtectionOne of the mo
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duct is brought into the x-ray room
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Radiography in Modern Industry - Kodak

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