Radiography in Modern Industry - Kodak

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Figure 112: Powder diffraction patterns by the Debye-Scherrer-Hull method. Top: Sodiumchloride (common salt) (Na 2 Cl). Bottom: Sodium sulphate, anhydrous (Na 2 SO 4 ).Some indication of the size of the crystals of the powder can be derived from the character of thediffraction lines. The method also applies to the study of metallurgical samples in the form of foil,since these are, in general, polycrystalline. If the specimen is sufficiently transparent to the x-rays, the arrangement in Figure 109B in a previous figure may be used; but, if it is too thick, therays diffracted backward would be used, as in Figure 109C in the same figure. In this wayinformation is derived about mechanical strains and preferred orientations in the specimen, andabout the relation between these indications and the nature and amount of heat treatment or ofmechanical working.Films for X-ray DiffractionThe choice of a film for a particular problem depends on the radiation quality and the relativeimportance of film speed, contrast, and graininess.Since the parallax associated with an image on double-coated film may be objectionable incertain applications of x-ray diffraction, a single-coated film may be preferable. However, if adouble-coated film is used, one emulsion can be protected against the action of the developer bya waterproof tape, which is removed after the film is in the fixer. Alternatively the emulsion maybe removed from one side of the completely processed film. Methods of applying both thesetechniques are described in "Removal Of One Emulsion From Double-Coated Film".Often the location, rather than the intensity, of lines or spots of x-ray diffraction patterns is ofimportance. Under these circumstances, considerable savings in exposure time can be achievedby the chemical aftertreatment known as intensification, described in "Intensification OfUnderexposed Radiographs".X-ray Diffraction ReferencesAmoros, Jose L., Buerger, Martin J., And Amoros, Marisa C. - The Laue Method, AcademicPress, New York, San Francisco, London, 1975.Azaroff, Leonid V., And Buerger, Martin J. - The Powder Method In X-Ray Crystallography,Mcgraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1958.Jeffery, J.W. - Methods In X-Ray Crystallography, Academic Press, London And New York, 1971.Klug, H. P., And Alexander, L E. - X-Ray Diffraction Procedures For Polycrystalline AndAmorphous Materials (2nd Ed), John Wiley And Sons, New York, 1974.Lipson, H., And Steeple, H. - Interpretation Of X-Ray Powder Diffraction Patterns, St. Martin'sPress, New York, 1970.Stout, George H., And Jensen, Lyle H. - X-Ray Structure Determination, The MacmillanCompany, New York, 1968.Radiography in Modern Industry 174
Powder Diffraction File, International Center for Diffraction Data, 1601 Park Lane, Swarthmore,PA, 19081.It is unlawful to make radiographs of stamps of the United States of America or other countrieswithout specific authorization from the Chief of the U.S. Secret Service, Washington, D.C. Thispermission has been received.Radiography in Modern Industry 175
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RadiographyinModernIndustry
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RadiographyinModernIndustryFOURTH E
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ContentsIntroduction...............
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Chapter 1: The Radiographic Process
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Intensifying ScreensX-ray and other
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makes it a very suitable material f
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Figure 6: Typical voltage waveforms
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Table I - Typical X-ray Machines an
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The wavelengths (or energies of rad
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Table III - Industrial Gamma-Ray So
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1. The source of light should be sm
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B and H in the Figure 13 show the e
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Figure 14: Geometric construction f
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Figure 17: Pinhole pictures of the
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The kilovoltage applied to the x-ra
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Figure 21: Schematic diagram of som
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kind of material radiographed, the
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instance, the kilovoltage may be fi
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The technique need not be limited t
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Chapter 5: Radiographic ScreensWhen
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Contact between the film and the le
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Figure 29: The number of electrons
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lead foil screens ran be retained w
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Figure 33: The sharpness of the rad
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Figure 34: Low density (right) is a
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such as a wall or floor, on the fil
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from this source. Since scatter als
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A filter reduces excessive subject
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Definite rules as to filter thickne
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0.010-inch front screen of value be
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Example: Suppose that with a given
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If the milliamperage remains consta
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espectively. In other words, a cons
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Any given exposure chart applies to
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Figure 46: Typical gamma-ray exposu
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where the slope of the characterist
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Figure 49: Characteristic curves of
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Figure 51: Characteristic curve of
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Nomogram MethodsIn Figure 54, the s
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Figure 56: Transparent overlay posi
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Figure 58: Overlay positioned so as
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The problem of radiographing a part
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Figure 62: System of lines drawn on
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Chapter 8: Radiographic Image Quali
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Film contrast refers to the slope (
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Hole Type PenetrametersThe common p
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of the same thickness as the specim
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Chapter 9: Industrial X-ray FilmsMo
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Figure 70 indicates the direction t
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the lead letters on a radiation-abs
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Therefore, protection requirements
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5. Avoid pressure damage caused by
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Paddles or plunger-type agitators a
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slow, and the development time reco
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ubbles make their way to the surfac
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When development is complete, the f
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soften considerably with prolonged
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Figure 77: The roller transport sys
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Rapid Access to Processed Radiograp
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Figure 78: Film-feeding procedures
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Chapter 11: Process ControlUsers of
Page 123 and 124: 3. Age of the developer replenisher
Page 125 and 126: Figure 80: Control chart below for
Page 127 and 128: DiscussionDensitometric data and pr
Page 129 and 130: Figure 82: Plan of a manual x-ray p
Page 131 and 132: Figure 83: A schematic diagram of a
Page 133 and 134: loading-bench activities are carrie
Page 135 and 136: KODAK Quinone-Thiosulfate Intensifi
Page 137 and 138: Methylene-Blue MethodTwo variations
Page 139 and 140: KODAK Hypo Test Solution HT-2Avoird
Page 141 and 142: In summary, use of the test papers
Page 143 and 144: narrow angle would be very thick, e
Page 145 and 146: When radiation passes through a spe
Page 147 and 148: Figure 89: Demonstration of the eff
Page 149 and 150: Figure 90: The amount of gamma radi
Page 151 and 152: The radiograph exposed in the right
Page 153 and 154: To illustrate, let us assume that t
Page 155 and 156: Figure 95: High-speed x-ray picture
Page 157 and 158: Figure 97: Two methods of neutron r
Page 159 and 160: Duplicating RadiographsSimultaneous
Page 161 and 162: Sometimes, as when sets of referenc
Page 163 and 164: PhotofluorographyIn photofluorograp
Page 165 and 166: discontinuities or of segregation i
Page 167 and 168: from the camera or by reaching down
Page 169 and 170: Figure 106: Schematic diagram of th
Page 171 and 172: valuable technique, for instance, i
Page 173: The position of the spots is determ
Page 177 and 178: Processing TechniquesRadiographs on
Page 179 and 180: Since this formula applies only to
Page 181 and 182: such that it does not distort the i
Page 183 and 184: Figure 113: A: Representation of a
Page 185 and 186: Figure 115: Characteristic curve of
Page 187 and 188: film fairly well. If high densities
Page 189 and 190: Density = 1.5 Density = 2.5Film Rel
Page 191 and 192: In most industrial radiography, the
Page 193 and 194: e noted here. Although the average
Page 195 and 196: Chapter 17: Film Graininess; Signal
Page 197 and 198: The ratio of signal to noise has a
Page 199 and 200: Chapter 18: The Photographic Latent
Page 201 and 202: Thus, the change that makes an expo
Page 203 and 204: Figure 130: Stages in the developme
Page 205 and 206: electrons by successive Compton int
Page 207 and 208: Development is essentially a chemic
Page 209 and 210: Chapter 19: ProtectionOne of the mo
Page 211 and 212: duct is brought into the x-ray room
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Radiography in Modern Industry - Kodak

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