Radiography in Modern Industry - Kodak

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tape to cover wider areas because the adhesive coating of the tape does not always adheretightly enough to the back of the adjoining layer to prevent leakage of the developer. Any tapeused should be tested for its impermeability to developer, and to be certain that the adhesiveadheres to the tape when the latter is removed rather than to the emulsion.For larger areas, as in conventional radiography, two films may be taped together, with theunwanted emulsions in contact, and developed together. After development the films areseparated, fixed, and washed individually. Alternatively, films may be taped, unwanted side down,to a discarded radiograph or a piece of film base, and removed after development but beforefixation.Tray ProcessingThis method is not as efficient as the tank system for the manual processing of x-ray films.However, when tanks are not available, satisfactory results can be obtained by employing traysand exercising the necessary care. The time and temperature recommendations for tankprocessing apply to tray processing.Several glass, hard rubber, plastic, or enameled trays are essential. They should be large enoughto accommodate the largest film that is used. One tray is used for developer solution, a secondfor stop bath or rinse water, a third for fixer solution, and a fourth for wash water.In the tray system, a quantity of solution should be mixed at regular intervals and kept in glassbottles or glazed jugs. Then enough solution to cover the films to a depth of at least 1 inch ispoured into the proper trays just before processing.When the film is removed from the cassette, film holder, etc, a stainless steel clip should beattached to one corner to facilitate handling. The film is then immersed in the developer solutionusing a quick, sliding motion. If the emulsion is not covered evenly, a dark line will show in theradiograph where the solution pauses. Likewise, dark spots will appear on the film at pointswhere spattered drops of developer strike the dried emulsion. During development, the filmshould be moved frequently and turned over so that the under side does not adhere to the trayand thereby retard the action of the chemicals. The tray should also be rocked in an irregularmanner to provide continual mixing and redistribution of the solution over both surfaces of thefilm. Similar agitation is necessary in the fixer. Provision should be made for a constant flow ofwater in the wash tray. Care should be taken to be sure that radiographs do not cling to oneanother or stick to the bottom of the tray during the course of the washing process.Commercial WashingFilms intended for ordinary commercial use should show no image change for several yearsunder normal storage conditions. Adequate washing reduces the residual fixer content of aprocessed film to an acceptable level. The KODAK Hypo Estimator used with the KODAK HypoTest Solution HT2 provides a simple, convenient method for measuring washing efficiency andcan be used for cursory estimates of the keeping quality of films. It is especially useful forcomparing variations within a test or for comparing several films in the same process. It has theadditional advantages of being fast and easy to do.Radiography in Modern Industry 138
KODAK Hypo Test Solution HT-2Avoirdupois, U.S. LiquidMetricWater 24 fl oz 750 mLKODAK 28% Acetic Acid 4 fl oz 125.0 mLKODAK Silver Nitrate(Crystals)1 / 4 ounce 7.5 gramsWater to make 32 fl oz 1.0 litre1 To make approximately 28% acetic acid from glacial acetic acid, dilute 3 parts of glacial aceticacid with 8 parts of water.Store the solution in a screw-cap or glass-stoppered brown bottle away from strong light. Avoidcontact of test solution with the hands, clothing, negatives, prints, or undeveloped photo- graphicmaterials; otherwise, black stains will ultimately result.The KODAK Hypo Estimator consists of four color patches reproduced on a strip of transparentplastic. It is used in conjunction with KODAK Hypo Test Solution HT-2. For use in the test, anunexposed piece of film of the same type is processed with the radiographs whose fixer contentis to be determined. After the test film is dried, one drop of the KODAK HT-2 Solution is placed onit and allowed to stand for 2 minutes. The excess test solution is then blotted off, and the stain onthe film compared with the color patches of the KODAK Hypo Estimator. The comparison shouldbe made on a conventional x-ray illuminator. Direct sunlight should be avoided since it will causethe spot to darken rapidly.For commercial use, the test spot should be no darker than two thicknesses of Patch 4 of theHypo Estimator. Two thicknesses can be obtained by folding the estimator along the center of thepatch.Storage ConditionsThe residual fixer concentration for commercial use can generally be tolerated in areas where theaverage relative humidity and temperature in the storage space are not excessive. Thesequantities may, however, be excessive when storage conditions are worse than average fortemperature and humidity. Archival processing should be the rule whenever it is known thatrelative humidity and temperature are likely to be constantly excessive, as is the case in tropicaland subtropical areas.Silver Recovery From Fixing SolutionsSilver recovery is both a significant means of conserving a natural resource and a potentialsource of revenue for users of radiographic products. Kodak silver recovery equipment consistsof two simple, nonmoving parts: the KODAK Chemical Recovery Cartridge, Type 1-P, and theKODAK Circulating Unit, Type P. This equipment is specifically designed for the removal of silverfrom the overflow streams of automatically replenished processors. It is, however, equallyadaptable for use with batch replenishment or hand-processing tanks. The equipment is low incost, requires only simple nonelectrical installation, and operates at high efficiency (99 percentrecovery). There is very little maintenance required.A single cartridge is sufficient to handle the fixer overflow in almost every instance. The cartridgeis connected by means of a flexible plastic tube to the fixer overflow line of a KODAKINDUSTREX Processor or to a storage tank. Simple records of the quantity of fixer andreplenisher used are all that need be kept. The exhaustion point of the cartridge is determined bythe use of test papers.Radiography in Modern Industry 139
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RadiographyinModernIndustry
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RadiographyinModernIndustryFOURTH E
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ContentsIntroduction...............
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Chapter 1: The Radiographic Process
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Intensifying ScreensX-ray and other
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makes it a very suitable material f
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Figure 6: Typical voltage waveforms
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Table I - Typical X-ray Machines an
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The wavelengths (or energies of rad
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Table III - Industrial Gamma-Ray So
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1. The source of light should be sm
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B and H in the Figure 13 show the e
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Figure 14: Geometric construction f
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Figure 17: Pinhole pictures of the
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The kilovoltage applied to the x-ra
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Figure 21: Schematic diagram of som
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kind of material radiographed, the
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instance, the kilovoltage may be fi
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The technique need not be limited t
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Chapter 5: Radiographic ScreensWhen
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Contact between the film and the le
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Figure 29: The number of electrons
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lead foil screens ran be retained w
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Figure 33: The sharpness of the rad
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Figure 34: Low density (right) is a
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such as a wall or floor, on the fil
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from this source. Since scatter als
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A filter reduces excessive subject
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Definite rules as to filter thickne
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0.010-inch front screen of value be
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Example: Suppose that with a given
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If the milliamperage remains consta
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espectively. In other words, a cons
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Any given exposure chart applies to
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Figure 46: Typical gamma-ray exposu
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where the slope of the characterist
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Figure 49: Characteristic curves of
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Figure 51: Characteristic curve of
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Nomogram MethodsIn Figure 54, the s
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Figure 56: Transparent overlay posi
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Figure 58: Overlay positioned so as
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The problem of radiographing a part
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Figure 62: System of lines drawn on
Page 87 and 88: Chapter 8: Radiographic Image Quali
Page 89 and 90: Film contrast refers to the slope (
Page 91 and 92: Hole Type PenetrametersThe common p
Page 93 and 94: of the same thickness as the specim
Page 95 and 96: Chapter 9: Industrial X-ray FilmsMo
Page 97 and 98: Figure 70 indicates the direction t
Page 99 and 100: the lead letters on a radiation-abs
Page 101 and 102: Therefore, protection requirements
Page 103 and 104: 5. Avoid pressure damage caused by
Page 105 and 106: Paddles or plunger-type agitators a
Page 107 and 108: slow, and the development time reco
Page 109 and 110: ubbles make their way to the surfac
Page 111 and 112: When development is complete, the f
Page 113 and 114: soften considerably with prolonged
Page 115 and 116: Figure 77: The roller transport sys
Page 117 and 118: Rapid Access to Processed Radiograp
Page 119 and 120: Figure 78: Film-feeding procedures
Page 121 and 122: Chapter 11: Process ControlUsers of
Page 123 and 124: 3. Age of the developer replenisher
Page 125 and 126: Figure 80: Control chart below for
Page 127 and 128: DiscussionDensitometric data and pr
Page 129 and 130: Figure 82: Plan of a manual x-ray p
Page 131 and 132: Figure 83: A schematic diagram of a
Page 133 and 134: loading-bench activities are carrie
Page 135 and 136: KODAK Quinone-Thiosulfate Intensifi
Page 137: Methylene-Blue MethodTwo variations
Page 141 and 142: In summary, use of the test papers
Page 143 and 144: narrow angle would be very thick, e
Page 145 and 146: When radiation passes through a spe
Page 147 and 148: Figure 89: Demonstration of the eff
Page 149 and 150: Figure 90: The amount of gamma radi
Page 151 and 152: The radiograph exposed in the right
Page 153 and 154: To illustrate, let us assume that t
Page 155 and 156: Figure 95: High-speed x-ray picture
Page 157 and 158: Figure 97: Two methods of neutron r
Page 159 and 160: Duplicating RadiographsSimultaneous
Page 161 and 162: Sometimes, as when sets of referenc
Page 163 and 164: PhotofluorographyIn photofluorograp
Page 165 and 166: discontinuities or of segregation i
Page 167 and 168: from the camera or by reaching down
Page 169 and 170: Figure 106: Schematic diagram of th
Page 171 and 172: valuable technique, for instance, i
Page 173 and 174: The position of the spots is determ
Page 175 and 176: Powder Diffraction File, Internatio
Page 177 and 178: Processing TechniquesRadiographs on
Page 179 and 180: Since this formula applies only to
Page 181 and 182: such that it does not distort the i
Page 183 and 184: Figure 113: A: Representation of a
Page 185 and 186: Figure 115: Characteristic curve of
Page 187 and 188: film fairly well. If high densities
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Density = 1.5 Density = 2.5Film Rel
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In most industrial radiography, the
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e noted here. Although the average
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Chapter 17: Film Graininess; Signal
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The ratio of signal to noise has a
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Chapter 18: The Photographic Latent
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Thus, the change that makes an expo
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Figure 130: Stages in the developme
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electrons by successive Compton int
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Development is essentially a chemic
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Chapter 19: ProtectionOne of the mo
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duct is brought into the x-ray room
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