Radiography in Modern Industry - Kodak

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and the like being introduced between film and screen during darkroom handling. The timeconsumingprocess of loading and unloading cassettes and film holders is avoided.Roll FilmsIn the radiography of circumferential welds in cylindrical specimens, in the examination of thejoints of a complete frame of an aircraft fuselage, and the like, long lengths of film permit greateconomies. The film is wrapped around the outside of the structure and the radiation source ispositioned on the axis inside allowing the examination of the entire circumference to be madewith a single exposure. Long rolls of film are also convenient for use in mechanized exposureholders for the repetitive radiography of identical specimens or for step-and-repeat devices inwhich radiation source and film holder move in synchronism along an extended specimen.Handling Of FilmX-ray film should always be handled carefully to avoid physical strains, such as pressure,creasing, buckling, friction, etc. The normal pressure applied in a cassette to provide goodcontacts is not enough to damage the film. However, whenever films are loaded in semiflexibleholders and external clamping devices are used, care should be taken to be sure that thispressure is uniform. If a film holder bears against a few high spots, such as occur on an ungroundweld, the pressure may be great enough to produce desensitized areas in the radiograph. Thisprecaution is particularly important when using envelope-packed films.Marks resulting from contact with fingers that are moist or contaminated with processingchemicals, as well as crimp marks, are avoided if large films are always grasped by the edgesand allowed to hang free. A convenient supply of clean towels is an incentive to dry the handsoften and well. Use of envelope-packed films avoids these problems until the envelope is openedfor processing. Thereafter, of course, the usual precautions must be observed.Another important precaution is to avoid drawing film rapidly from cartons, exposure holders, orcassettes. Such care will help materially to eliminate objectionable circular or treelike blackmarkings in the radiograph, the results of static electric discharges.The interleaving paper should be removed before the film is loaded between either lead orfluorescent screens. When using exposure holders in direct exposure techniques, however, thepaper should be left on the film for the added protection that it provides. At high voltage, directexposuretechniques, electrons emitted by the lead backing of the cassette or exposure holdermay reach the film through the intervening paper or felt and record an image of this material onthe film. This effect is avoided by the use of lead or fluorescent screens. In the radiography oflight metals, direct-exposure techniques are the rule, and the paper folder should be left oninterleaved film when loading it in the exposure holder.The ends of a length of roll film factory-packed in a paper sleeve should be sealed in thedarkroom with black pressure-sensitive tape. The tape should extend beyond the edges of thestrip 1/4 to 1/2 inch, to provide a positive light tight seal.Identifying RadiographsBecause of their high absorption, lead numbers or letters affixed to the subject furnish a simplemeans of identifying radiographs. They may also be used as reference marks to determine thelocation of discontinuities within the specimen. Such markers can be conveniently fastened to theobject with adhesive tape. A code can be devised to minimize the amount of lettering needed.Lead letters are commercially available in a variety of sizes and styles. The thickness of theletters chosen should be great enough so that their image is clearly visible on exposures with themost penetrating radiation routinely used. Under some circumstances it may be necessary to putRadiography in Modern Industry 98
the lead letters on a radiation-absorbing block so that their image will not be "burned out". Theblock should be considerably larger than the legend itself.Shipping Of Unprocessed FilmsIf unprocessed film is to be shipped, the package should be carefully and conspicuously labeled,indicating the contents, so that the package may be segregated from any radioactive materials. Itshould further be noted that customs inspection of shipments crossing international boundariessometimes includes fluoroscopic inspection. To avoid damage from this cause, packages,personal baggage, and the like containing unprocessed film should be plainly marked, if possible,and the attention of inspectors drawn to their contents.Storage Of Unprocessed FilmWith x-rays generated up to 200 LV, it is feasible to use storage compartments lined with asufficient thickness of lead to protect the film. At higher kilovoltages, protection becomesincreasingly difficult; hence, film should be protected not only by the radiation barrier forprotection of personnel but also by increased distance from the source.At 100 kV, a 1/8-inch thickness of lead should normally be adequate to protect film stored in aroom adjacent to the x-ray room if the film is not in the line of the direct beam. At 200 kV, the leadthickness should be increased to 1/4 inch.With million-volt x-rays, films should be stored beyond the concrete or other protective wall at adistance at least five times farther from the x-ray tube than the area occupied by personnel. Thestorage period should not exceed the times recommended by the manufacturer.Medical x-ray films should be stored at approximately 12 times the distance of the personnel fromthe million-volt x-ray tube, for a total storage period not exceeding two weeks.In this connection, it should be noted that the shielding requirements for films given in NationalBureau of Standards Handbook 76 "Medical X-Ray Protection Up to Three Million Volts" andNational Bureau of Standards Handbook 93 "Safety Standard for Non-Medical X-Ray and SealedGamma-Ray Sources, Part 1 General" are not adequate to protect the faster types of x-ray filmsin storage.Gamma RaysWhen radioactive material is not in use, the lead container in which it is stored helps provideprotection for film. In many cases, however, the storage container for gamma-ray source will notprovide completely satisfactory protection to stored x-ray film. In such cases, to prevent fogging, asufficient distance should separate the emitter and the stored film. The conditions for the safestorage of x-ray film in the vicinity of gamma-ray emitters are given in Tables VII and VIII.Radiography in Modern Industry 99
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RadiographyinModernIndustry
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RadiographyinModernIndustryFOURTH E
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ContentsIntroduction...............
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Chapter 1: The Radiographic Process
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Intensifying ScreensX-ray and other
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makes it a very suitable material f
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Figure 6: Typical voltage waveforms
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Table I - Typical X-ray Machines an
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The wavelengths (or energies of rad
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Table III - Industrial Gamma-Ray So
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1. The source of light should be sm
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B and H in the Figure 13 show the e
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Figure 14: Geometric construction f
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Figure 17: Pinhole pictures of the
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The kilovoltage applied to the x-ra
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Figure 21: Schematic diagram of som
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kind of material radiographed, the
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instance, the kilovoltage may be fi
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The technique need not be limited t
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Chapter 5: Radiographic ScreensWhen
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Contact between the film and the le
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Figure 29: The number of electrons
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lead foil screens ran be retained w
Page 47 and 48: Figure 33: The sharpness of the rad
Page 49 and 50: Figure 34: Low density (right) is a
Page 51 and 52: such as a wall or floor, on the fil
Page 53 and 54: from this source. Since scatter als
Page 55 and 56: A filter reduces excessive subject
Page 57 and 58: Definite rules as to filter thickne
Page 59 and 60: 0.010-inch front screen of value be
Page 61 and 62: Example: Suppose that with a given
Page 63 and 64: If the milliamperage remains consta
Page 65 and 66: espectively. In other words, a cons
Page 67 and 68: Any given exposure chart applies to
Page 69 and 70: Figure 46: Typical gamma-ray exposu
Page 71 and 72: where the slope of the characterist
Page 73 and 74: Figure 49: Characteristic curves of
Page 75 and 76: Figure 51: Characteristic curve of
Page 77 and 78: Nomogram MethodsIn Figure 54, the s
Page 79 and 80: Figure 56: Transparent overlay posi
Page 81 and 82: Figure 58: Overlay positioned so as
Page 83 and 84: The problem of radiographing a part
Page 85 and 86: Figure 62: System of lines drawn on
Page 87 and 88: Chapter 8: Radiographic Image Quali
Page 89 and 90: Film contrast refers to the slope (
Page 91 and 92: Hole Type PenetrametersThe common p
Page 93 and 94: of the same thickness as the specim
Page 95 and 96: Chapter 9: Industrial X-ray FilmsMo
Page 97: Figure 70 indicates the direction t
Page 101 and 102: Therefore, protection requirements
Page 103 and 104: 5. Avoid pressure damage caused by
Page 105 and 106: Paddles or plunger-type agitators a
Page 107 and 108: slow, and the development time reco
Page 109 and 110: ubbles make their way to the surfac
Page 111 and 112: When development is complete, the f
Page 113 and 114: soften considerably with prolonged
Page 115 and 116: Figure 77: The roller transport sys
Page 117 and 118: Rapid Access to Processed Radiograp
Page 119 and 120: Figure 78: Film-feeding procedures
Page 121 and 122: Chapter 11: Process ControlUsers of
Page 123 and 124: 3. Age of the developer replenisher
Page 125 and 126: Figure 80: Control chart below for
Page 127 and 128: DiscussionDensitometric data and pr
Page 129 and 130: Figure 82: Plan of a manual x-ray p
Page 131 and 132: Figure 83: A schematic diagram of a
Page 133 and 134: loading-bench activities are carrie
Page 135 and 136: KODAK Quinone-Thiosulfate Intensifi
Page 137 and 138: Methylene-Blue MethodTwo variations
Page 139 and 140: KODAK Hypo Test Solution HT-2Avoird
Page 141 and 142: In summary, use of the test papers
Page 143 and 144: narrow angle would be very thick, e
Page 145 and 146: When radiation passes through a spe
Page 147 and 148: Figure 89: Demonstration of the eff
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Figure 90: The amount of gamma radi
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The radiograph exposed in the right
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To illustrate, let us assume that t
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Figure 95: High-speed x-ray picture
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Figure 97: Two methods of neutron r
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Duplicating RadiographsSimultaneous
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Sometimes, as when sets of referenc
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PhotofluorographyIn photofluorograp
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discontinuities or of segregation i
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from the camera or by reaching down
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Figure 106: Schematic diagram of th
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valuable technique, for instance, i
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The position of the spots is determ
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Powder Diffraction File, Internatio
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Processing TechniquesRadiographs on
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Since this formula applies only to
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such that it does not distort the i
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Figure 113: A: Representation of a
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Figure 115: Characteristic curve of
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film fairly well. If high densities
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Density = 1.5 Density = 2.5Film Rel
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In most industrial radiography, the
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e noted here. Although the average
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Chapter 17: Film Graininess; Signal
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The ratio of signal to noise has a
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Chapter 18: The Photographic Latent
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Thus, the change that makes an expo
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Figure 130: Stages in the developme
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electrons by successive Compton int
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Development is essentially a chemic
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Chapter 19: ProtectionOne of the mo
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duct is brought into the x-ray room
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