Radiography in Modern Industry - Kodak

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Which is best suited to a particular installation is determined largely by the traffic in and out of theprocessing room and by the amount of floor space available. The single door equipped with aninside bolt or lock is most economical of floor space and is practical where one employee handlesthe processing. However, in most cases a labyrinth, or a vestibule with two interlocking doors, isgenerally employed. Plans for the double-door and revolving door light locks, as well as alabyrinth, are shown in Figure 84.Figure 84: Light locks (left and right) and maze (center) allow continuous access to theprocessing room.Wall CoveringThe walls of the processing room can be of any pleasing color. A cream or buff will give maximumreflectance for safelight illumination. A good semigloss paint is satisfactory for any wall wherechemicals are not likely to be spattered. The best protective materials for walls near theprocessing tanks in a manual processing room or in a chemical mixing area are ceramic tile,structural glass sheets, or stainless steel. Care should be taken in choosing tile since there havebeen instances when radioactive material has been incorporated in the glaze of the tile.Corrosion- and stain-resistant paints are available but do not have the permanence of stainlesssteel, tile, or structural glass.Floor CoveringThe ideal floor is resistant to chemical corrosion and staining, of waterproof installation, of asuitable color, and free from slipperiness. Porcelain and the natural clay tiles are satisfactory, asare the darker asphalt tiles. Linoleum, and plastic and rubber tiles are less desirable becausethey may be stained or pitted by the processing solutions.PlumbingIn drainage lines, the greatest problem encountered is corrosion. Stainless steel, glass, chemicalstoneware, and anticorrosion iron are usually satisfactory. Galvanized steel may be used whenwaste solutions do not remain in pipes. Under no circumstances should two metals be used, suchas copper pipe with galvanized steel fittings, because of the likelihood of corrosive electrolyticaction. Plastic fittings will eliminate this problem.Lines carrying processing or replenisher solutions from storage tanks must be of stainless steel,glass, plastic, or other inert, corrosion-resistant material.IlluminationThe processing area must be provided with both white light and safelight illumination. White lightis desirable for many activities, including cleaning and maintenance.Since excessive exposure of film to safelight illumination will result in fog, the arrangement of thesafelight lamps must be carefully considered. A manual processing room should be divided intothree zones of safelight intensity: The brightest, in which the films are washed and placed in thedryer; the medium zone, where films are developed and fixed; and the dimmest zone, whereRadiography in Modern Industry 132
loading-bench activities are carried on. Only one level of illumination is usually provided in aprocessing room for automatic processing, since the manipulation of unprocessed film is reducedto a minimum.The "safeness" of processing room illumination depends equally on the use of the propersafelight filter, the use of the proper wattage of bulb, the proper placement of lamps with respectto film, and not exceeding the maximum "safe" time of exposure of the film to safelightillumination.Exposed films are more sensitive to fogging from the safelight illumination than are unexposedfilms. Hence, it is especially important to guard the exposed films against prolonged exposure tosafelight illumination. Note that the screen-type films are more sensitive to fogging by safelightillumination than direct-exposure films.A simple method of checking the safelight of illumination is to test it with the fastest film used inthe laboratory, as follows: An exposure is made of a stepped wedge. In the processing room, theholder is unloaded and the film placed in the area where it is normally handled. Part of the film iscovered with opaque paper. The remainder is exposed to the safelight illumination for themaximum time normally needed for handling. The test film is then given standard processing. Ifno density shows on the uncovered part that received the safelight exposure, as compared withthe covered part, the lighting may be assumed to be safe.Radiography in Modern Industry 133
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RadiographyinModernIndustry
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RadiographyinModernIndustryFOURTH E
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ContentsIntroduction...............
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Chapter 1: The Radiographic Process
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Intensifying ScreensX-ray and other
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makes it a very suitable material f
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Figure 6: Typical voltage waveforms
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Table I - Typical X-ray Machines an
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The wavelengths (or energies of rad
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Table III - Industrial Gamma-Ray So
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1. The source of light should be sm
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B and H in the Figure 13 show the e
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Figure 14: Geometric construction f
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Figure 17: Pinhole pictures of the
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The kilovoltage applied to the x-ra
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Figure 21: Schematic diagram of som
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kind of material radiographed, the
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instance, the kilovoltage may be fi
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The technique need not be limited t
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Chapter 5: Radiographic ScreensWhen
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Contact between the film and the le
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Figure 29: The number of electrons
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lead foil screens ran be retained w
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Figure 33: The sharpness of the rad
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Figure 34: Low density (right) is a
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such as a wall or floor, on the fil
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from this source. Since scatter als
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A filter reduces excessive subject
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Definite rules as to filter thickne
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0.010-inch front screen of value be
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Example: Suppose that with a given
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If the milliamperage remains consta
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espectively. In other words, a cons
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Any given exposure chart applies to
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Figure 46: Typical gamma-ray exposu
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where the slope of the characterist
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Figure 49: Characteristic curves of
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Figure 51: Characteristic curve of
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Nomogram MethodsIn Figure 54, the s
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Figure 56: Transparent overlay posi
Page 81 and 82: Figure 58: Overlay positioned so as
Page 83 and 84: The problem of radiographing a part
Page 85 and 86: Figure 62: System of lines drawn on
Page 87 and 88: Chapter 8: Radiographic Image Quali
Page 89 and 90: Film contrast refers to the slope (
Page 91 and 92: Hole Type PenetrametersThe common p
Page 93 and 94: of the same thickness as the specim
Page 95 and 96: Chapter 9: Industrial X-ray FilmsMo
Page 97 and 98: Figure 70 indicates the direction t
Page 99 and 100: the lead letters on a radiation-abs
Page 101 and 102: Therefore, protection requirements
Page 103 and 104: 5. Avoid pressure damage caused by
Page 105 and 106: Paddles or plunger-type agitators a
Page 107 and 108: slow, and the development time reco
Page 109 and 110: ubbles make their way to the surfac
Page 111 and 112: When development is complete, the f
Page 113 and 114: soften considerably with prolonged
Page 115 and 116: Figure 77: The roller transport sys
Page 117 and 118: Rapid Access to Processed Radiograp
Page 119 and 120: Figure 78: Film-feeding procedures
Page 121 and 122: Chapter 11: Process ControlUsers of
Page 123 and 124: 3. Age of the developer replenisher
Page 125 and 126: Figure 80: Control chart below for
Page 127 and 128: DiscussionDensitometric data and pr
Page 129 and 130: Figure 82: Plan of a manual x-ray p
Page 131: Figure 83: A schematic diagram of a
Page 135 and 136: KODAK Quinone-Thiosulfate Intensifi
Page 137 and 138: Methylene-Blue MethodTwo variations
Page 139 and 140: KODAK Hypo Test Solution HT-2Avoird
Page 141 and 142: In summary, use of the test papers
Page 143 and 144: narrow angle would be very thick, e
Page 145 and 146: When radiation passes through a spe
Page 147 and 148: Figure 89: Demonstration of the eff
Page 149 and 150: Figure 90: The amount of gamma radi
Page 151 and 152: The radiograph exposed in the right
Page 153 and 154: To illustrate, let us assume that t
Page 155 and 156: Figure 95: High-speed x-ray picture
Page 157 and 158: Figure 97: Two methods of neutron r
Page 159 and 160: Duplicating RadiographsSimultaneous
Page 161 and 162: Sometimes, as when sets of referenc
Page 163 and 164: PhotofluorographyIn photofluorograp
Page 165 and 166: discontinuities or of segregation i
Page 167 and 168: from the camera or by reaching down
Page 169 and 170: Figure 106: Schematic diagram of th
Page 171 and 172: valuable technique, for instance, i
Page 173 and 174: The position of the spots is determ
Page 175 and 176: Powder Diffraction File, Internatio
Page 177 and 178: Processing TechniquesRadiographs on
Page 179 and 180: Since this formula applies only to
Page 181 and 182: such that it does not distort the i
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Figure 113: A: Representation of a
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Figure 115: Characteristic curve of
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film fairly well. If high densities
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Density = 1.5 Density = 2.5Film Rel
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In most industrial radiography, the
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e noted here. Although the average
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Chapter 17: Film Graininess; Signal
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The ratio of signal to noise has a
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Chapter 18: The Photographic Latent
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Thus, the change that makes an expo
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Figure 130: Stages in the developme
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electrons by successive Compton int
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Development is essentially a chemic
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Chapter 19: ProtectionOne of the mo
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duct is brought into the x-ray room
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