Radiography in Modern Industry - Kodak

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This control is accomplished by hardener in the developer and additional hardener in the fixer tohold the thickness and tackiness of the emulsion within the limits required for reliable transport,as well as for rapid washing and drying.It is also desirable that automated processing provide rapid access to a finished radiograph. Thisis achieved in part by the composition of the processing solutions and in part by using them attemperatures higher than those suitable for manual processing of film.The hardening developer develops the film very rapidly at its normal operating temperature.Moreover, the formulation of the solution is carefully balanced so that optimum development isachieved in exactly the time required for the hardener to harden the emulsion. If too muchhardener is in a solution, the emulsion hardens too quickly for the developer to penetratesufficiently, and underdevelopment results. If too little hardener is in the solution, the hardeningprocess is slowed, overdevelopment of film occurs, and transport problems may be encountered.To maintain the proper balance, it is essential that developer solution be replenished at the rateproper for the type or types of film being processed and the average density of the radiographs.Because washing, drying, and keeping properties of the radiograph are closely tied to theeffectiveness of the fixation process, special fixers are needed for automatic processing. Not onlymust they act rapidly, but they must maintain the film at the proper degree of hardness for reliabletransport. Beyond this, the fixer must be readily removed from the emulsion so that properwashing of the radiograph requires only a short time. A hardening agent added to the fixersolution works with the fixing chemicals to condition the film for washing and for rapid dryingwithout physical damage to the emulsion.Experience has shown that the solutions in this chemical system have a long life. In general, it isrecommended that the processor tanks be emptied and cleaned after 50,000 films of mixed sizeshave been processed or at the end of 3 months, whichever is sooner. This may vary somewhatdepending on local use and conditions; but, in general, this schedule will give very satisfactoryresults.Film-Feeding ProceduresSheet FilmFigure 78 shows the proper film-feeding procedures. The arrows indicate the direction in whichfilms are fed into the processor. Wherever possible, it is advisable to feed all narrower films sideby side so as to avoid overreplenishment of the solutions. This will aid in balanced replenishmentand will result in maximum economy of the solutions used.Care should be taken that films are fed into the processor square with the edge of a side guide ofthe feed tray, and that multiple films are started at the same time.In no event should films less than 7 inches long be fed into the processor.Radiography in Modern Industry 118
Figure 78: Film-feeding procedures for KODAK INDUSTREX Processors.Roll FilmRoll films in widths of 16 mm to 17 inches and long strips of film may be processed in a KODAKINDUSTREX Processor. This requires a somewhat different procedure than is used when feedingsheet film. Roll film in narrow widths and many strips have an inherent curl because they arewound on spools. Because of this curl, it is undesirable to feed roll or strip film into the processorwithout attaching a sheet of leader film to the leading edge of the roll or strip. Ideally, the leadershould be unprocessed radiographic film. Sheet film that has been spoiled in exposure oraccidentally light-fogged can be preserved and used for this purpose.The leader film should be at least as wide as, and preferably wider than, the roll film and be aminimum of 10 inches long. It is attached to the roll film with a butt joint using pressure-sensitivepolyester tape, such as SCOTCH Brand Electrical Tape No. 3, one inch in width. (Other types oftape may not be suitable due to the solubility of their bases in the processing solutions.) Careshould be taken that none of the adhesive side of the tape is exposed to the processing solutions.Otherwise, the tape may stick to the processor rollers or bits of adhesive may be transferred tothe rollers, resulting in processing difficulties.If narrow widths of roll or strip films are being fed, they should be kept as close as possible to oneside guide of the feed tray. This will permit the feeding of standard-size sheet films at the sametime. Where quantities of roll and strip films are fed, the replenisher pump should be turned off fora portion of the time. This will prevent overreplenishment and possible upset of the chemicalbalance in the processor tanks.Filing RadiographsAfter the radiograph is dry, it must be prepared for filing. With a manually processed radiograph,the first step is the elimination of the sharp projections that are caused by the film-hanger clips.Use of film corner cutters will enhance the appearance of the radiograph, preclude its scratchingothers with which it may come in contact, facilitate its insertion into an envelope, and conservefiling space.Radiography in Modern Industry 119
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RadiographyinModernIndustry
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RadiographyinModernIndustryFOURTH E
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ContentsIntroduction...............
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Chapter 1: The Radiographic Process
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Intensifying ScreensX-ray and other
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makes it a very suitable material f
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Figure 6: Typical voltage waveforms
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Table I - Typical X-ray Machines an
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The wavelengths (or energies of rad
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Table III - Industrial Gamma-Ray So
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1. The source of light should be sm
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B and H in the Figure 13 show the e
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Figure 14: Geometric construction f
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Figure 17: Pinhole pictures of the
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The kilovoltage applied to the x-ra
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Figure 21: Schematic diagram of som
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kind of material radiographed, the
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instance, the kilovoltage may be fi
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The technique need not be limited t
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Chapter 5: Radiographic ScreensWhen
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Contact between the film and the le
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Figure 29: The number of electrons
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lead foil screens ran be retained w
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Figure 33: The sharpness of the rad
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Figure 34: Low density (right) is a
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such as a wall or floor, on the fil
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from this source. Since scatter als
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A filter reduces excessive subject
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Definite rules as to filter thickne
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0.010-inch front screen of value be
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Example: Suppose that with a given
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If the milliamperage remains consta
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espectively. In other words, a cons
Page 67 and 68: Any given exposure chart applies to
Page 69 and 70: Figure 46: Typical gamma-ray exposu
Page 71 and 72: where the slope of the characterist
Page 73 and 74: Figure 49: Characteristic curves of
Page 75 and 76: Figure 51: Characteristic curve of
Page 77 and 78: Nomogram MethodsIn Figure 54, the s
Page 79 and 80: Figure 56: Transparent overlay posi
Page 81 and 82: Figure 58: Overlay positioned so as
Page 83 and 84: The problem of radiographing a part
Page 85 and 86: Figure 62: System of lines drawn on
Page 87 and 88: Chapter 8: Radiographic Image Quali
Page 89 and 90: Film contrast refers to the slope (
Page 91 and 92: Hole Type PenetrametersThe common p
Page 93 and 94: of the same thickness as the specim
Page 95 and 96: Chapter 9: Industrial X-ray FilmsMo
Page 97 and 98: Figure 70 indicates the direction t
Page 99 and 100: the lead letters on a radiation-abs
Page 101 and 102: Therefore, protection requirements
Page 103 and 104: 5. Avoid pressure damage caused by
Page 105 and 106: Paddles or plunger-type agitators a
Page 107 and 108: slow, and the development time reco
Page 109 and 110: ubbles make their way to the surfac
Page 111 and 112: When development is complete, the f
Page 113 and 114: soften considerably with prolonged
Page 115 and 116: Figure 77: The roller transport sys
Page 117: Rapid Access to Processed Radiograp
Page 121 and 122: Chapter 11: Process ControlUsers of
Page 123 and 124: 3. Age of the developer replenisher
Page 125 and 126: Figure 80: Control chart below for
Page 127 and 128: DiscussionDensitometric data and pr
Page 129 and 130: Figure 82: Plan of a manual x-ray p
Page 131 and 132: Figure 83: A schematic diagram of a
Page 133 and 134: loading-bench activities are carrie
Page 135 and 136: KODAK Quinone-Thiosulfate Intensifi
Page 137 and 138: Methylene-Blue MethodTwo variations
Page 139 and 140: KODAK Hypo Test Solution HT-2Avoird
Page 141 and 142: In summary, use of the test papers
Page 143 and 144: narrow angle would be very thick, e
Page 145 and 146: When radiation passes through a spe
Page 147 and 148: Figure 89: Demonstration of the eff
Page 149 and 150: Figure 90: The amount of gamma radi
Page 151 and 152: The radiograph exposed in the right
Page 153 and 154: To illustrate, let us assume that t
Page 155 and 156: Figure 95: High-speed x-ray picture
Page 157 and 158: Figure 97: Two methods of neutron r
Page 159 and 160: Duplicating RadiographsSimultaneous
Page 161 and 162: Sometimes, as when sets of referenc
Page 163 and 164: PhotofluorographyIn photofluorograp
Page 165 and 166: discontinuities or of segregation i
Page 167 and 168: from the camera or by reaching down
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Figure 106: Schematic diagram of th
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valuable technique, for instance, i
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The position of the spots is determ
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Powder Diffraction File, Internatio
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Processing TechniquesRadiographs on
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Since this formula applies only to
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such that it does not distort the i
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Figure 113: A: Representation of a
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Figure 115: Characteristic curve of
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film fairly well. If high densities
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Density = 1.5 Density = 2.5Film Rel
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In most industrial radiography, the
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e noted here. Although the average
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Chapter 17: Film Graininess; Signal
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The ratio of signal to noise has a
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Chapter 18: The Photographic Latent
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Thus, the change that makes an expo
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Figure 130: Stages in the developme
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electrons by successive Compton int
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Development is essentially a chemic
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Chapter 19: ProtectionOne of the mo
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duct is brought into the x-ray room
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Radiography in Modern Industry - Kodak

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