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Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.zaOne of the most striking characteristics of theories in the social sciences is theoccurrence of highly abstract and multidimensional concepts. In the socialsciences it is unavoidable that we have to employ concepts such as values,culture, solidarity, maturity, meaning, power, peace, revolution, alienation,anomie, structure, function, rite, religion, depression, social distance, anxiety,aggression, motivation, intelligence, success, and many more.Many of these concepts have their origins in the language game of the socialsciences and are, therefore, usually linked exclusively to certain theories ormodels. However, even concepts such as power, freedom, and revolution,which are part and parcel of everyday life and language, are given newmeaning when they become integrated in a theory in the social sciences suchas, for example, that of Karl Marx. The fact that concepts acquire meaning, oreven new meaning, within a conceptual framework such as a theory, a model,or a typology, has led philosophers of science to refer to such concepts astheoretical concepts or constructs. As we shall indicate in the followingsection, the aim in empirical research is to operationalize such constructs in ameaningful manner by making them either measurable or observable. Thebasic technique by means of which the connotations of theoretical concepts orconstructs are explicated, is by means of theoretical or constitutive definition,whereas the denotations of such concepts are explicated by means ofoperational definition or operationalization. In the following section, we pay agood deal of attention to the manner in which a highly theoretical sociologicalconcept such as alienation may be explicated by means of theoreticaldefinition. Following this, the concept theoretical validity will be defined moreclearly.An example: AlienationAlthough Hegel was the first author to have used the term alienation in atheoretically interesting manner, it is generally accepted that it was Karl Marxwho first developed a consistent and systematic theory concerning the concept.Marx agreed with Hegel’s contention that alienation was a reality which ariseswhen the individual feels that he or she has lost control. Marx, however,differed from Hegel, Feuerbach and others in his view of the origin ofalienation, viewing it as resulting from economic factors, and more specificallyas a consequence of capitalism:In what does alienation consist? First that the work is external to theworker, that it is not apart of his nature, that consequently he does notfulfil himself in his work but denies himself... His work is not voluntary butimposed, forced labour. It is not the satisfaction of a need, but only ameans of satisfying other needs. The object produced by labor, its product,now stands opposed to it as an alien being, as a power independent of theproducer... The performance of work is at the same time its objectification.This performance appears, in the sphere of political economy, as a60