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categories. Finally, the research context refers to both the broad spatiotemporalcircumstances under which research is conducted (for example, aparticular year in a specific country with a specific socio-political system), andthe specific spatio-temporal setting.A further distinction is drawn between the characteristics and orientations ofthe researcher and the participant. Researcher or participant characteristicsrefer to attributes such as gender, nationality, age, socio-economic status,educational level. These characteristics are known as organismic variables.Researcher or subject orientations refer to attitudes, opinions, expectations,preferences, tendencies, and values. These distinctions may be represented inthe following manner:FIGURE 4.1I. Researcher IV. Research context1.1 Researchercharacteristics(gender,nationality, age,SES, educationlevel)1.2 Researcherorientations(attitudes, values,opinions, preferences,expectations)Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.zaIIIMeasuring instrument(questionnaire, interviewschedule, observationcategories,scale, index)II.1 Participantcharacteristics(gender,nationality,age, SES,educationallevel)IIParticipantII.2 Participantorientations(attitudes,preferences,opinions)80
In accordance with common usage in the literature on experimental design, weshall refer to the consequences of the nuisance variables associated with eachof the four variables as effects: researcher effects, participant effects measuringinstrument effects, and context effects. Researcher effects are those negativeconsequences (relating to validity) that are directly attributable to theresearcher. Similarly, measuring instrument effects are those negativeconsequences, or that lack of validity, that may be directly attributed to someaspect of the measuring instrument, and so on.Observation effectsWe shall employ the term observation effects in a broad sense to indicateresearcher, participant, measuring instrument, and context effects. Althoughthe examples to which we refer in the following section are mainly derivedfrom the experimental and survey research literature, it ought to be clear to thereader that they have a wider applicability, and also refer to unstructured formsof observation.Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.zaRESEARCHER EFFECTSOur discussion of researcher effects is divided into two sections; in the first, wediscuss those effects which are associated with researcher characteristics, andin the second, those associated with researcher orientations.Researcher characteristicsSome of the most important researcher effects associated with specificresearcher characteristics or attributes, relate to the affiliation of the researcher,the image that the researcher has with the research participants, and thedistance between the researcher and the participants as a result of differencesbetween the characteristics of the researcher and those of the participants. Thelatter category is, therefore, not only the consequence of researchercharacteristics, but it arises from the interaction between the characteristics ofthe researcher and those of the participants.(i)Affiliation of the researcherThe organization with which the researcher is associated may result inresponses being biased. If the interviewer is employed by a highly influentialorganization that is known for the quality of its research, it is likely thatrespondents will be more highly motivated to answer questions seriously andauthentically. Universities and large research organizations usually havereputations of this nature. Should the interviewer, however, be associated withan organization which causes suspicion or with a completely unknownorganization, it is likely that respondents will react more negatively to theinterview situation. Atking and Chaffee (1972), for example, found that the81
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HSRC SERIES IN METHODOLOGYSeries Ed
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All rights reserved. No part of thi
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PART 3Appendix 1M Ferreira — A so
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Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac
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important methods of operationalizi
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Introduction: The scientific langua
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inevitably be found in the discipli
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At the project level, three general
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FIGURE 1.3Free download from www.hs
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context of a particular research tr
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Introduction: Social sciences resea
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Page 48 and 49: all the factors which may pose a th
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Page 112 and 113: CONSTRUCTIVE REPLICATIONIn conclusi
Page 114 and 115: IntroductionAn example: The Reiger
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Page 136 and 137: CONTEXT EFFECTSIs it reasonable to
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DICHOTOMOUS, POLYTOMIC AND CONTINUO
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People therefore, depending upon th
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higher than the mean scores on meth
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Source ofinformation Sender Recipie
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of the modellandum which are deemed
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phenomena or variables and, for thi
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i.e. from a collection of mutually
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system, the Aristotelian theory of
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IntroductionThe spectrum of the soc
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• How do scientist study underlyi
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the scope is more likely to be unde
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A number of comments will serve to
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ConceptsIn figure 7.2 below, qualit
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A research report is usually a logi
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to be found between qualitative and
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at which people are placed towards
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The different levels can probably b
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proach should be canonized and anot
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Goals of this chapterIntroductory r
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is written, the wise researcher wou
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Some of the characteristics that ar
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falls within more than one discipli
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earlier on. The aim of the project,
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Example 3Title of projectAtlas of l
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IntroductionThe context of reportin
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METATHEORETICAL GUIDEIINESIt is gen
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the researcher’s views, insuffici
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Suggestions for further reading:Bes
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2. THEORETICAL ORIENTATIONMedical s
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particular outpatient centre experi
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3. METHODOLOGICAL STRATEGYSymbolic
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the organisation). Secondly, a larg
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tations of the subjects; it is conc
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Although costly, videotaping of the
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16. First half of 1981.17. Gold (19
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2. How is value-orientation defined
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in practice. In contrast, pragmatis
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ian style of management result in l
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Quality of supervision of stoping g
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TABLE IIIANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR M
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FIGURE 2 — SECOND ORDER INTERACTI
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A further consideration in the choi
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gangs with supervision that was ass
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percentage of transfers not being m
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for all the relevant factors. Discu
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WHITE, V.P. (ed.). 1983. Grant prop
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connotation 58ff, 126ff- convention
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hermeneutics 21heuristic function,
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Naive inductivism 57naturalistic re
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esearcher image 82-83researcher ori
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