PhD Thesis - Energy Systems Research Unit - University of Strathclyde

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1.1 Energy use in dwellingsThe domestic sector accounts for a considerable portion of the final energyconsumption of most developed countries. Within the European Union (EU),approximately 25% of the total annual final energy consumption is used in dwellings[1]. A precise breakdown of how this energy is consumed on a country by countrybasis is difficult to ascertain, especially considering that such a breakdown is highlydependent on factors such as climate, technology used and other conditions whichare variable from country to country [2]. However, an approximate breakdown isgiven by the European Environmental Agency (EEA) in [3], which indicates that asubstantial amount of this energy, about 69%, goes into space heating with theremaining balance accounted for by water heating (15%), providing electricity forappliances and lighting equipment (11%) and cooking activities (5%). In warmclimates such as that present in southern European countries, space cooling is thepredominant load [4]. Ensuring the efficient provision and use of energy in dwellingsis therefore an essential aspect in attaining the overall 20% improvement in energyefficiencytarget set out by the Presidency Conclusions of the European Council [5]for 2020.1.1.1 Current measures aimed at improving the energy-efficiency in buildingsGovernments and organisations worldwide have realised the potential benefits inreducing domestic energy demands and have implemented various measures to aid inreducing residential energy demand. The measures can be typically grouped into:Measures aimed at reducing energy demand by increasing efficiency; andMeasures aimed at offsetting fossil-fuel sourced energy through the use ofrenewable energy sources, including solar water heating, photovoltaic andmicro-wind systems.Measures aimed at reducing energy demand typically rely on improving the wayenergy is used. Directive 2002/91/EC on the Energy Performance of Buildings(EPBD) [6], considered to be the main tool in promoting energy-efficiency in2
uildings, and Directive 2006/32/EC on energy end-use efficiency [7] requiring EUcountries to improve their energy end-use efficiency by 9% by 2016, are primeexamples of legislation designed to encourage implementation of energy-efficiencymeasures in the EU. Using renewable energy sources to displace fossil fuel use relieson providing incentives favouring systems making use of renewable energy sources.The efficacy of these measures is heavily dependent on local conditions such asclimate, cost of conventionally sourced energy, the existence of financial incentives,public acceptance, access to renewable energy sources etc. In northern Europe forexample, several countries have managed to control their overall energy consumptionby lowering the demand for space heating through the use of improved buildingtechniques and insulation [3]. Countries in southern Europe, on the other hand, havebeen particularly successful in harvesting solar energy for domestic hot water [8].Electricity consumption in domestic households is still on the increase [9]. This ispartially attributable to larger penetration of certain appliances (such as microwaveovens, set-top boxes and other audiovisual equipment), electrification of certainactivities (e.g. to the introduction of a number of ‘gadgets’ automating manualactivities), improved expectations of comfort and an ageing population. These are allfactors which are contributing to such an increase. In warm climates all this has beencompounded by the significant increase in the use of residential air conditioningrelying on vapour compressor packaged split units [2, 9]. Over the period 2006 and2009, the 7 EU countries bordering the Mediterranean sea: Greece, Malta, Italy,Slovenia, France, Cyprus and Spain have seen an annual increase in electricityconsumption of 1.35%, compared to the 0.31% increase reported in the other EUcountries [10] over the same period.1.1.2 Aiming at more ambitious targetsIn order to reach the energy-efficiency improvement targets set by the EU, a moreconcrete and perhaps active approach is therefore required [11]. Most of the energyefficiencymeasures which have been implemented so far are considered to be a firststep towards decreasing energy demand in the domestic sector; a step in the right3
Page 1 and 2: University of StrathclydeDepartment
Page 3 and 4: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSIt has been a long
Page 5 and 6: ABSTRACTThe domestic sector account
Page 7 and 8: TABLE OF CONTENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSAB
Page 9 and 10: 2.4.3.3 Aggregated loads frequency
Page 11 and 12: 4.1.1.1 Factoring for electricity g
Page 13 and 14: 5.5.1.2 Present worth assuming a va
Page 15 and 16: LIST OF FIGURESFig. 1.1 Separate ge
Page 17 and 18: Fig. 2.38 Aggregated DHW draw profi
Page 19 and 20: Fig. 5.23 PP for Scenarios 1 and 2
Page 21 and 22: uilding 95Table 3.5 Control scheme
Page 23 and 24: ACRONYMS & ABBREVATIONSBMS Building
Page 25: CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONChapter overvi
Page 29 and 30: Micro-cogeneration can make use of
Page 32 and 33: offer reasonable and adequate retur
Page 34 and 35: system in a residential building, i
Page 36 and 37: conditions have on the performance
Page 38 and 39: effective manner. The research in t
Page 40 and 41: investigate how a residential micro
Page 42 and 43: Table 1.1 also includes additional
Page 44 and 45: 1.7 Chapter References[1] DG for En
Page 46 and 47: [18] Pehnt, M., Cames, M., Fischer,
Page 48 and 49: [39] Cardona, E. and Piacentino, A.
Page 50 and 51: [56] Shin, Y., Seo, J.A., Cho, H.C,
Page 52 and 53: 2.1 Modelling residential demand -
Page 54 and 55: minute resolution data. The researc
Page 56 and 57: 2.3.1 Example: specifying the build
Page 58 and 59: Table 2.1 - Dimensions of the model
Page 60 and 61: In this second enlarged building, t
Page 62 and 63: Table 2.3 - Main characteristics of
Page 64 and 65: Table 2.4 - Main characteristics of
Page 66 and 67: esolution demand data for individua
Page 68 and 69: the original data (see equation 2.1
Page 70 and 71: the course of a year. The end resul
Page 72 and 73: specific appliance at a particular
Page 74 and 75: consumption during this period is e
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awarded on a random basis following
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Table 2.7 - Scaling factors for the
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NVF values for washing machines, el
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Table 2.10 - Annual electrical ener
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2.4.4 Creating the profiles used in
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Fig. 2.16 - Electrical demand profi
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Fig. 2.19 - High efficiency electri
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2.4.4.3 6 Household buildingAs ment
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2.29 and Figure 2.30 show the resul
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period [11].In order to improve on
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(as discussed by Richardson et al.
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similar fashion to the modelling of
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observed measurements from a number
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Fig. 2.37 - Total internal heat gai
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comparing water consumption related
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various aspects which make up the h
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natural Resources" - (LN 238 of 200
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in Domestic Appliances and Lighting
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[49] DEFRA (2010). "Dishwashers Gov
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CHAPTER 3MODELLINGMICRO-TRIGENERATI
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the same research also suggests tha
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cooling device in conjunction with
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simulation tool ESP-r by explaining
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Fig 3.2 - Basic micro-trigeneration
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3.2.3 Control strategies for the pl
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or decrease the flow rate of the co
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efrigerant, which in this case is w
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arbitrary cycle configuration, usin
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coefficients for the future and pre
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Applying basic energy and mass cons
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CH Power , the chiller’s refriger
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general form of equation (3.16) [33
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functions of hot water circuit inle
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circuit were obtained and how the p
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the internal high and low pressures
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the imaginary boundary constituting
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the model was then compared to a se
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Fig. 3.9 - Modelled chilled water c
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standard deviation was calculated t
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The selected tank size is based on
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3.5 Summary of Chapter 3This chapte
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Conservation in Buildings and Commu
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uilding simulation." Doctoral Thesi
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CHAPTER 4SIMULATIONMETHODOLOGYANDAN
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Table 4.1 - Scenarios investigatedS
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The building fabric, building size
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analysis in the case of the interme
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micro-trigeneration system are thos
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profile for that same time period (
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4.2.1.3 Calculating the fuel consum
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cogeneration technologies [16].- (4
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the present 1.088 kgCO 2 per kWh de
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Table 4.4 - Explanation of the cash
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FIT and considering the cost involv
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impact they have on the energetic,
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Conservation in Buildings and Commu
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CHAPTER 5RESULTSANDDISCUSSIONThis c
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increases so does energy-efficiency
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the building fabric is most effecti
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Instances where the load duration c
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households, GF refers to the ground
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Finally, and this will be the discu
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In the table, the low and high effi
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The scenario with the lowest number
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Comparing Figure 5.3 and 5.4, respe
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number of cycles during the cooling
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5.3.3 Chiller’s performanceAs dis
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5.3.4 Electrical performance of the
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decrease in net imports and net dem
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Table 5.10 - Micro-trigeneration sy
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trigeneration system primary energy
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Table 5.11 - Micro-trigeneration pr
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The PES obtained for the different
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Difference inprimary energybetween
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Similar results are obtained for al
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2 High/High efficiency3 High/Curren
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Fig. 5.8 - Sensitivity of Emissions
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Similarly to the effect on PE SEPAR
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5.5 Micro-trigeneration system econ
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As electricity costs increase (rela
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ii.In the latter case the magnitude
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Resultingdifference incash flowDiff
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Multiple of current electricity tar
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of the system diminishes with incre
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Fig. 5.17 - CF and CF component ter
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shows that exporting all the cogene
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LPG price level when the micro-trig
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Minimum threshold viability of the
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Similarly to the PW and the IRR, it
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Table 5.13 - Summary of micro-trige
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performance of the micro-trigenerat
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directly affect the system’s ener
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micro-trigeneration system. Convers
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CHAPTER 6CONCLUSION:OUTCOMESANDFUTU
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and power demands of the building.
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circuits associated with the absorp
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the subject. More work therefore ne
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plant models using the building sim
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APPENDIX AEquation factors for sele
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Factors for use in equation (2.1) f
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Page 278 and 279:
Page 280 and 281:
Page 282 and 283:
APPENDIX BElectrical demand profile
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Fig. B4 - Current efficiency electr
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Fig. B10 - High efficiency electric
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Fig. B16 - Current efficiency elect
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Page 292 and 293:
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Component ESP-r Database: Annex 42
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0.0000 #88 Performance map: Thermal
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99.999 #1 Evaporator Total Mass (Fl
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100.00 #13 Boiling temperature of f
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One way to solve a partial differen
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The ‘self coupling term’ is def
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C ******************** CMP73C *****
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&COMMON/PCOND/CONVAR(MPCON,MCONVR),
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C and the inlet point into the solu
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IF(CSVF(INOD1,1).LE.BDATA(IPCOMP,17
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C Calculate T1 (DegC): T1 = ((T16-T
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XST=4010 DST=-(9.133128) + (0.94396
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& + 2500.559)*1000C Refrigerating p
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End IfC Calculate h3 (J/kg): h3=h2+
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&&ElseEnd IfActPow=0ActPow = PCONDR
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C Node 1, thermal mass effected by
Page 326 and 327:
WRITE(ITU,*) ' Connection(s) ',ICON
Page 328 and 329:
Fig. F.1 - IRR for scenarios with d
Page 330 and 331:
Fig. F.5 - PP for scenarios with di
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PhD Thesis - Energy Systems Research Unit - University of Strathclyde

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