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67. World Bank 2011.
68. See http://blog.jetblue.com/index.php/2013/09/05
/unpacked-working-from-home/, accessed June 19,
2015.
69. Bloom and others 2014.
70. See http://www.philstar.com/education-and-home
/2013/06/13/953332/filipino-teachers-uruguay.
71. Muto and Yamano 2009.
72. e-Choupal, “The Status of Execution.” http://www
.itcportal.com/businesses/agri-business/e-choupal
.aspx.
73. World Bank 2014a; Demirgüç-Kunt and others 2015.
74. Jack and Suri 2014.
75. Fingerprint scanning among paprika farmers in
Malawi increased repayment rates (IFPRI and
World Bank 2010).
76. For a discussion on personal networks and
labor markets, see Granovetter (1973) and Calvo-
Armengol (2004).
77. Boase and others 2006.
78. World Bank 2011.
79. La Ferrara, Chong, and Duryea 2012; Jensen and
Oster 2009.
80. WDR 2016 team, based on Research ICT Africa
surveys (various years).
81. De, Mohapatra, and Plaza, forthcoming, for the
WDR 2016.
82. Camacho and Conover 2011; Jensen 2010.
83. Goyal 2010; Aker 2010a; Best and others 2010; Aker
2011; Martin 2010.
84. Aker and Mbiti 2010.
85. Beuermann, McKelvey, and Vakis 2012.
86. May, Dutton, and Munyakazi 2011.
87. Jensen 2007.
88. Pineda, Aguero, and Espinoza 2011.
89. Galiani and Jaitman 2010.
90. Asad 2014.
91. Aker 2010a; Pineda, Aguero, and Espinoza 2011.
92. Aker 2010a.
93. Aker 2011.
94. Tadesse and Bahiigwa 2015; Jagun, Heeks, and
Whalley 2008.
95. Amazon Mechanical Turk is an online work platform.
The quote was obtained through an online
questionnaire of online workers done in September
2014 for this Report.
96. Varian 2011.
97. Government of Estonia 2015.
98. Interactive Advertising Bureau 2010.
99. Greenstein and McDevitt 2011.
100. WDR 2016 team, based on Research ICT Africa surveys
(various years).
101. Pew Research Center 2014.
102. In the United States, the median tenure for male
wage and salary workers was lower in 2014 at 5.5
years, compared with 5.9 years in 1983 (Copeland
2015). Dutz and others (2015, for the WDR 2016)
show more turnover among young workers in
industries intensive in ICT in Brazil. See also
Stevenson 2009.
103. Handel 2015, for the WDR 2016.
104. World Bank 2012, 2013.
105. Forman, Goldfarb, and Greenstein 2012.
106. Eden and Gaggl 2014; Karabarbounis and Neiman
2013. Eden and Gaggl (2015, for the WDR 2016) suggest
that while the fall in the routine share of labor
is linked to technological change, the shift in the
labor share compared with that of capital may be a
more complex story. In the United States, housing
prices have been identified as a key driver in the
rise of capital shares (Bonnet and others 2014). This
chapter focuses on the fall of routine labor within
the labor share, as this is more clearly linked to
technological change.
107. From 16 to 14 percent in the case of Honduras, and
from 18 to 16 percent in the case of Romania (Eden
and Gaggl 2015, for the WDR 2016).
108. Acemoglu 2002; Aghion and others 2015; Dabla-
Norris and others 2015; Garicano and Rossi-
Hansberg 2006; Jaumotte, Lall, and Papageorgiou
2008; Autor, Katz, and Krueger 1998.
109. Acemoglu and Autor 2011; Akcomak, Kok, and
Rojas-Romagosa 2013; Autor and Dorn 2013; Goos,
Manning, and Salomons, forthcoming.
110. Autor, Dorn, and Hanson, forthcoming; Autor, Dorn,
and Hanson 2013.
111. The number of workers in agriculture declined in
China between 2000 and 2010, but the number of
workers within the sector that were machine or
equipment operators almost doubled (WDR 2016
team, based on the National Bureau of Statistics of
China, various years).
112. Dutz and others 2015; Messina, Oviedo, and Pica
2015 for Mexico and Peru.
113. Goldin and Katz (2008) refer to a race between education
and technology when discussing the case of
the United States, but the phrase was first used by
Tinbergen (1975).
114. Brynjolfsson and McAfee (2014, 11).
115. Oviedo and others (forthcoming) use STEP household
surveys (World Bank, various years) from 10
developing countries to characterize the typical
tasks done across occupations, and show that,
indeed, occupations that are considered intensive
in nonroutine cognitive and socioemotional skills
require workers to do more complex reading, write
longer texts, use more advanced math, contact more
clients, collaborate more with others, as well as do
more thinking, learning, supervising, and presenting.
By contrast, these occupations do fewer routine
and manual activities, such as operating machines
and doing physical activities.
116. WDR calculations based on STEP household surveys
(World Bank, various years).